 | Water and Sanitation in Emergencies - Good Practice Review 1 (ODI, 1994, 120 p.) |
 |  | (introduction...) |
| | 1. Objectives and Intended Audience |
|  | 2. Water and Sanitation in the Context of Environmental Health |
| | 2.1 Environmental Health |
| | 3. The Operating Environment: General Considerations |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 3.1 The political context |
| | 3.2 Conflict areas |
| | 3.3 Technological considerations |
| | 3.4 Climatic considerations |
| | 3.5 Common characteristics of displaced and resident populations |
| | 3.6 Social and economic considerations |
| | 3.7 Management considerations |
| | 4. The Operating Environment: Needs Assessment, Co-ordination and Contingency Planning |
| | 4.1 Assessment of needs |
| | 4.2 The importance of co-ordination |
| | 4.3 The need for contingency planning within an emergency programme |
| | 5. Water: General Principles |
| | 5.1 Quantity and quality considerations |
| | 5.2 Options for providing increasing water supply |
| | 6. Sanitation: General Principles |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 6.1 Latrines |
| | 6.2 Other sanitation considerations |
| | 6.3 Hygiene awareness |
| | 7. Typical Scenarios |
| | 7.1 Introduction |
| | 7.2 Population displacement into arid areas |
| | 7.3 Population displacement into hilly and mountainous areas |
| | 7.4 Population displacement into areas of abundant surface water |
| | 7.5 Population displacement into existing settlements |
| | 7.6 Resident population affected by drought |
| | 7.7 Resident population affected by sudden-onset disasters |
| | 7.8 Emergency water and sanitation programmes in urban areas |
| | Annex 1 - Further Resources |
| | Annex 2 - Useful Contacts and Addresses |
| | Annex 3 - Technical Guidelines |
| | Annex 4 - Checklist for Environmental Health Needs Assessment |
| | Annex 5 - Practical Ways to Prevent the Spread of Cholera |
| | Annex 6 - A Gender Checklist for Environmental Health Actions |
| | Annex 7 - Chlorine as a Water Disinfectant |
| | Good practice RRN review |
| | How to order |
| | RRN |
3.4 Climatic considerations
Climate will have a major impact upon a water supply system. From an emergency point of view, constructing systems during the summer months in countries that experience winter and summer extremes can prove extremely challenging. The issue of freezing is the most obvious one to address and plan for.
The Tajik refugees came into Northern Afghanistan during December 1992. Temperatures were below freezing and the wind chill made it excruciatingly cold. Burying the pipes was possible and so they were not the main concern. It was the exposed parts of the distribution network, such as the small-diameter pipes to tapstands, gate valves and pumps that were most vulnerable. Large bodies of stored water are less of a problem than smaller quantities. Ways can be explored for burying storage tanks, or providing some form of insulated cover. Roofs over storage tanks need to be designed to withstand snow. Chlorine becomes far less effective with reduced temperatures and contact times therefore need to be significantly increased (see Annex 7). Consideration should also be given to how far people have to walk to collect water. Will this exposure time be a risk to them? What about snow and ice on the paths? This is particularly relevant in hilly areas.
Emergency programmes in the former Soviet Union and the former Yugoslavia have also had to deal with these problems.
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