 | Renewable biological systems for alternative sustainable energy production. (FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin - 128) (1997) |
 |  | (introduction...) |
| | Acknowledgments |
| | Contributors |
| | Foreword |
| | Summary |
|  | Chapter 1 - Biological energy production |
| | 1.1 Energy and environmental issues |
| | 1.2 Photosynthesis and biomass |
| | 1.2.1 Photosynthetic efficiency |
| | 1.2.2 Biomass wastes and their conversion |
| | 1.2.3 Fuel production via microalgal CO2 fixation |
| | 1.3 General problems |
| | References |
| | Chapter 2 - Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 2.1 Photosynthetic capture of solar energy |
| | 2.1.1 Solar energy |
| | 2.1.2 Why is biotechnology now applied to energy technology? |
| | 2.2 Photosynthesis mechanisms |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 2.2.1 Plant photosynthesis |
| | 2.2.2 Bacterial photosynthesis |
| | 2.3 Hydrogen production through solar energy conversions |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 2.3.1 Cyanobacterial hydrogen production (plant-type photosynthesis) |
| | 2.3.2 Bacterial hydrogen production (bacterial-type photosynthesis) |
| | 2.3.3 Use of photosynthesized proteins in photoelectric conversion elements |
| | References |
| | Chapter 3 - Production of fuel alcohol from cellulosic biomass |
| | 3.1 Introduction |
| | 3.2 Cellulase production |
| | 3.2.1 Cellulase |
| | 3.2.2 Screening of cellulase-producing microorganisms |
| | 3.2.3 Strain improvement for cellulase production |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 3.2.3.1 Development of a process for high-titer cellulase production |
| | 3.2.3.2 Cellulase production at low cost |
| | 3.2.3.3 Potential for mass production of cellulase |
| | 3.3 Saccharification of cellulosic waste materials |
| | 3.3.1 Pre-treatment of cellulosic waste |
| | 3.3.2 Saccharification of cellulosic waste |
| | 3.3.2.1 Saccharification |
| | 3.3.2.2 Recovery and re-use of cellulase |
| | 3.3.2.3 Sugar concentration using reverse osmosis |
| | 3.4 Use of immobilized yeast cells in alcohol fermentation's |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 3.4.1 Preparation of immobilized yeast cells |
| | 3.4.2 Continuous plant operation using immobilized yeast cells |
| | 3.4.3 Fermentation processes used in ethanol production |
| | 3.4.4 Flash fermentation using immobilized yeast cells |
| | 3.5 Alcohol production using an integrated pilot plant |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 3.5.1 Outline |
| | 3.5.2 Pre-treatment of cellulosic biomass |
| | 3.5.3 Cellulase production |
| | 3.5.4 Saccharification of biomass |
| | 3.5.5 Enzyme recovery from biomass |
| | 3.5.6 Concentration of sugar solutions |
| | 3.5.7 Alcohol fermentation |
| | 3.5.8 Alcohol recovery |
| | 3.6 Feasibility study |
| | 3.7 Conclusion |
| | References |
| | Chapter 4 - Methane production |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 4.1 Microbial consortia and biological aspects of methane fermentation |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 4.1.1 Hydrolysis and acidogenesis |
| | 4.1.2 Acetogenesis and dehydrogenation |
| | 4.1.3 Methanogenesis |
| | 4.2 Molecular biology of methanogens |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 4.2.1 Genetic markers |
| | 4.2.2 Molecular cloning of methanogenic genes |
| | 4.2.3 Genetic transformations |
| | 4.3 Developments in bioreactor technology |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 4.3.1 Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) |
| | 4.3.2 Upflow anaerobic filter process (UAFP) |
| | 4.3.3 Anaerobic fluidized-bed reactor (AFBR) |
| | 4.3.4 Two-phase methane fermentation processes |
| | References |
| | Chapter 5 - Hydrogen production |
| | 5.1 Introduction |
| | 5.2 Biophotolysis of water by microalgae and cyanobacteria |
| | (introduction...) |
| | 5.2.1 Hydrogenase-dependent hydrogen production |
| | 5.2.2 Nitrogenase-dependent hydrogen production |
| | 5.3 Hydrogen from organic compounds |
| | 5.3.1 Hydrogen production by photosynthetic bacteria |
| | 5.3.2 Combined photosynthetic and anaerobic and bacterial hydrogen production |
| | 5.4 Enhancement of hydrogen-producing capabilities through genetic engineering |
| | 5.5 Research and development on biological hydrogen production |
| | 5.6 Future prospects |
| | References |
| | Chapter 6 - Oil production |
| | 6.1 Oil substitutes from biomass |
| | 6.2 Microalgae as biological sources of lipids and hydrocarbons |
| | 6.3 Thermochemical liquefaction of microalgae |
| | 6.3.1 Liquid fuels from microalgal biomass |
| | 6.3.2 Cultivation of microalgae |
| | 6.3.3 Liquefaction of microalgae |
| | 6.4 Algal hydrogenation |
| | 6.5 Future prospects |
| | References |
| | Chapter 7 - The future of renewable biological energy systems |
| | 7.1 Introduction |
| | 7.2 Biomass production potential and efficiencies |
| | 7.3 Fuel alcohol production from biomass |
| | 7.4 Methane fermentations |
| | 7.5 Fuels derived from microalgae |
| | 7.6 Conclusions |
| | References |
| | FAO technical papers |
1.1 Energy and environmental issues
The widespread use of fossil fuels, has brought numerous benefits to industrialized societies. Large amounts of agricultural, domestic and industrial wastes generated in these countries as a result of development, have potentially detrimental effects both on the environment and on human health. Itai-itai and Minamata diseases in Japan, are just two examples of the effects of air and water pollution on human health. The importance of protecting the environment and restoring environmental damage cannot be overemphasized.
In recent years, environmental pollution has become a global problem. Internationalization of industrial and social activities has given rise to problems such as global warming, desertification, and acid deposition. These global problems are rooted in the materially-rich lifestyles which are supported by abundant and wasteful use of fossil fuels in industrialized countries. Rapidly increasing industrial activities in China, India, and in other developing countries implicates that these countries will inevitably contribute to deterioration of the global environment and to destruction of the global ecosystem. Lifestyle changes, and changes in our key industrial systems are required in order to minimize the impact of environmental pollution. The recycling of materials, and thus minimizing the generation of waste, is a basic concept which must be implemented in order to meet the new demands of sustainable development in both industrialized and developing countries.
Mechanisms for implementing this concept and for establishing environmentally compatible technologies which support the future "recycling" world are required. Systems, which utilize energies produced from biomass are typical examples of energy recycling systems. Biotechnology is one of the future-oriented technologies, and one that will play a major role in the exploitation of biomass energy. All biomass (plant, animal and microbial), originates through CO2 fixation by photosynthesis. Biomass utilization is consequently included in the global carbon cycle of the biosphere. Biomass energy in developing countries, originates from fuelwood, animal wastes, and agricultural residues, and is primarily utilized for activities which are essential to survival, such as cooking and obtaining water. Improvements in the living standards in these countries will result in the non-essential use of energy. Development of technologies that efficiently produce biomass, and convert it to more convenient forms of energy is therefore very important.
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