(introduction...)

By

L. R. Verma

Illustrations by Mohinder Singh Chauhan

Edited by Aparna Negi and Prem N. Sharma

Watershed Management Technology Center (WATMATEC) of the Dr. YSP University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, HP, India

and

Participatory Watershed Management Training in Asia (PWMTA) NETHERLANDS/FAO (UN), GCP/RAS/161/NET, Kathmandu, Nepal

PWMTA The Participatory Watershed Management Training in Asia (PWMTA). Program (GCP/RAS/161/NET, FAO/Netherlands) is designed for human resource development in participatory watershed management of forest, soil, water and other natural resources by enhancing skills and national capabilities to plan, implement, evaluate and monitory participatory watershed rehabilitation programs. This will be achieved by regional training, workshops, seminars and national and regional watershed management networking. The PWMTA is closely linked and complimentary to the FARM program. Many of the Asian countries are seriously investing in WM today. However, few are providing training in holistic approach to participatory watershed management. PWMTA is to assist the member countries in filling this gap.

ASIAN WATMANET (ASIAN WATershed Management NETwork) This is a regional network for people’s participation in watershed management founded in Nov. 1994 by the national coordinators of the FAO/UNDP RAS/93/063, WMTUH/FARM program. It is now sponsored by the PWMTA, GCP/RAS/161/NET program of the FAO/Netherlands along with the RAS/93/062, FARM program. Its member countries are the participating countries in the PWMTA program. The network is to facilitate: farmers’ organizations for watershed management at small watershed, village, district and national level, exchange of experiences at farmers, extensionists, as well as technical, professional, educator and policy maker level, exchange of information among the member countries, and strengthen a movement of the fragile watersheds in the Asian region. It also publishes a quarterly ASIAN WATMANET newsletter.

The designations employed and the presentation of the materials in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of the FAO (UN), UNDP or the Netherlands concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation's of its frontiers or boundaries. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors alone and do not imply any opinion what so ever in the part of the FAO (UN), UNDP or the Netherlands.

First Edition: Aug., 1998

PWMTA Field Document No. 15

Copyright ©1998

Dr. YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, HP, India
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the UN

Publisher:

Participatory Watershed Management Training in Asia (PWMTA) Program
GCP/RAS/161/NET, FAO (UN), U.N. Bldg., P.O. Box 25, Kathmandu, Nepal

Cover photo:

Women of the Upper Himalayas-Conservators of the indigenous knowledge systems

For copies write to:

Prem N. Sharma, FAO (UN), P.O. Box 25, Kathmandu, Nepal

Foreword

The Participatory Watershed Management Training in Asia (PWMTA) program GCP/RAS/161/NET recognizes the importance of indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) and practices for watershed management (WM) in the Tropics and Himalayan region of Asia as paramount to their sustainable development process. New technologies and practices can be successful if they are well ingrained into the indigenous systems.

With this the PWMTA commissioned ITK for WM studies in its member countries, some of which have been published as PWMTA Field Docs. 11 and 12 and the rest are still under preparation. In the regional workshop on the subject in Nov. 1998 in Beijing, many of the focal points of the PWMTA decided to further document the ITK for WM practices in their countries. The present document is an output of further studies carried out by the Indian WATMANET center for Upper Himalayas. Most of the populations of the Upper Himalayas in Asia being isolated, still live in an indigenous way hence the importance of integrating their indigenous knowledge in to the present day development programs. I hope this document helps bring an appreciation of the ITK among the professionals so that they can facilitate the development and conservation of the Upper Himalayas in a sustainable manner.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. L. R. Verma and other faculty members of the YSP University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, India, for their efforts at institutionalizing the ITK concepts in the university work through this study. It is a path breaking work as it brings to the fore-front a glimpse of the rich knowledge base of the Upper Himalayan people. The artist have also captured the ideas very well and given an excellent depiction of their indigenous knowledge base.

I hope all concerned with the development of the Upper Himalayas as well as those related to training, education and research in natural resources management in upper mountain watersheds will take note of this work and carry it forward by making use of it in the development process. The document is also being made available to the Asian region as many of the ideas are also applicable to other countries in similar situations.

Aug., 1998

Prem N. Sharma
Participatory Watershed Management
Training in Asia (PWMTA) Program,
PWMTA-FARM, FAO (UN),
Kathmandu, Nepal

Introduction

Indigenous knowledge in the Himalayan region is the inter-generational wisdom of local inhabitants to perform their livelihood operations in a most eco-friendly manner under remote, isolated and inaccessible conditions; characterized by harsh climate and limited survival options. Since this knowledge is transferred orally from one generation to the next, it is dynamic in dissemination and scientific in indigenous experimentation; receiving constant stimuli from outside. However, indigenous not only stands for ingrained intrinsic knowledge, but is also amenable to modifications based on latest technical know-how by local inhabitants through native means to suit their daily requirements. Therefore, to discard any indigenous knowledge on connotations of superstition, conservatism, primitivism etc. by modem science would only result into a failure of the developmental networks. Evidences have shown that the developmental projects which overtly rejected already acquired knowledge of the local inhabitants, have failed to achieve their targets.

Throughout Himalayan region, watershed resource use and productivity is based on crops, horticulture, pastures and forestry which is largely influenced by geographical and environment diversity prevailing in its different zones.

The wide variations in altitude and other agro-climatic parameters such as rainfall and temperature, broadly classify Himalayan region into four major agro-climatic zones. These include (1) the low hills and valleys near the plains, (2) the middle hills and valleys with sub-humid climate, (3) high mountains and valleys with temperate climate and (4) cold dry desert zone.

In this document, ITK for upper Himalayas comprising of high mountains and valleys with temperate climate and cold dry deserts are described/presented.

Before turning to ITK per se, it is pertinent to present a brief glimpse of the two regions under consideration. First, the cold desert region and then the temperate zone of the western Himalayas/Indian Upper Himalayas.

Cold deserts in Western Himalayas

Spread over an approximate area of 74, 809 sq. km, the cold desert area in India covers 12 out of 131 desert blocks in India. Leh and Kargil districts of Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir and Lahaul and Spiti along with some parts of Chamba and Kinnaur districts of Himachal Pradesh comprise this cold desert area (Fig. 1.1). Similarity in their physiographic location and the consequent geomorphic processes still unfolding in the region lend to this entire region a largely similar texture.

Located in the interior of continents, away from any source of moisture, cold deserts manifest remarkable ecological variety and biological diversity. Their geographic remoteness and unfriendly climatic conditions greatly constrain economic growth and development. Environmental degradation, which is on increase, is an additional cause for concern.

Fig. 1.1 Map of the North-West Indian Himalayas

Bio-physical features

A rarified atmosphere, fast blowing winds -eroding the immature sandy soils, extreme variations in daily and seasonal temperatures along with scanty or no precipitation during spring and summer ensure short growing seasons (2-5 months) with exposure to harmful infra-red and ultraviolet radiations. Unharvested glacial melts, frozen soil moisture during early spring and low relative humidity during the growing season are some abiotic features.

Sparce natural vegetation results from over-exploitation by a variety of agencies - e.g. grazing by both domestic and migratory animals, harvesting (of vegetation) to meet energy needs viz. fuelwood and dry fodder for winter besides demands from pharmaceutical agencies. Additionally, both migratory birds and rodents utilize dispersed seeds as a means of sustenance thereby jeopardizing natural regeneration.

Features such as high transpiration due to excessive heat (often causing mortality), inadequate photo-hours especially during winter, injury due to frost causes poor seed germination, poor plant growth, poor root formation, deformed canopy, reduced radial growth etc. and other physical signs/phenotypic manifestations which in turn affect the productive biomass production in the region.

Natural vegetation is overwhelmingly herbaceous - comprising of a few tree species and a few shrub species. Juniperus wallichiana, J. communis, Caragana spp., Artemisea spp., Lonicera spp., Potentilla spp., Myricaria spp., Koleresia dutheii, Ephedra, Salix, spp., Juniperus spp., Rosa spp., Caragana spp. Rhododendron spp., Betula utilis are found here. Additionally, manmade forests of poplars, willows, Hippophae spp. and Myricaria spp. can also be seen along river banks, rivulets and nallahs.

The herbaceous element is comprised of Thymus, Medicago, Trifolium, Anemone, Potentila, Epilobium, Verbena, Allium, Aconitum, Delphenium, Aquilegia, Primula, Geranium, Polygonum and Cannabis. This abundance of the herbaceous element, both in Laddakh and in the cold desert of Himachal, has been the mainstay of the traditional medicinal system prevalent in this region. The nature of flora along with man made interventions have ensured a land use pattern typical to this region.

Socio-economic features

These features also place constraints on economic growth. Fundamentally these are re-enforced by the biophysical features discussed earlier. Society steeped in religion along with class/case hierarchies, absence of adequate means of livelihood, absence of women's organizations accompanied by rudimentary infrastructure - viz. poor communication network, inadequate developmental institutions/agencies, lack of educational/vocational facilities and inadequate outreach for relevant transfer of technology characterize cold desert society. The result, quite obviously, is that there remains a largely untapped and underdeveloped industrial potential even in the agriculture/horticulture sector that are the mainstay of communities inhabiting cold deserts.

In this region as a whole the initial land use pattern was purely agriculture. It has, however, changed over a period of time to agri-horti-silvi-pastoral. Apple, potato, walnut etc. are some important horticultural crops while poplars and willows have been popularised especially in Lahaul and Spiti and Laddakh to increase both the green cover and also to augment fodder and fuel needs.

The physiographic location of Laddakh enables this district to have only one cropping season - Kharif, which extends from March/April to October. Further depending upon altitude the growing season varies between two months (above 4000 in amsl) to five months (below 3000 in amsl). Millets followed by wheat are the most important cereal crops. These are followed, in order of importance by fodder crops, barley and pulses. Alfa-alfa is the most popular fodder crop. Fruits and vegetables - the horticultural component, are a recent development. Since they yield high economic returns increasingly more and more area is being brought under crops such as apples, raisin grapes and apricots. Mustard, Pea, Lathyrus, millets and turnips are also grown. The central belt (3000-3500 in amsl) is very well suited to the production of vegetable seeds. Rotation in the cropping pattern is hardly practiced.

The fauna of this entire region is quite unique. Due to poor/rudimentary communication facilities the yak has been the major animal for burden. Besides yaks, livestock comprise mainly sheep and goats.

While the major fauna species of cold desert in Jammu & Kashmir are snow leopard, ibex, snow cock, partridges, magpie etc. A large number of migratory birds visit the lakes and rivers. Pashmina goat, Changthangi sheep, yaks, donkeys and double humped camels are animals of economic importance.

The ibex, bharal, brown bear, tibetan wolf, nayan, marmot, snow leopard, lynx, weasel, vole, snow cock, snow partridge, chukor, chough, raven etc. are found in the cold deserts of Himachal Pradesh. This uniqueness is being preserved through the establishment of two sanctuaries namely the Pin valley National Park in Spin and the Sechu Tuan Nala in Chamba.

As mentioned, yak and sheep dominate livestock composition. Additionally land extensive management and transhumance along with the barter system of converting livestock into other usable commodities are features that characterise animal husbandry practices. Chief among the many problems faced by the livestock sector are - insufficient supply of fodder, overgrazing right up to alpine meadows and difficulty in stall feeding in snow bound areas etc. The Gaddis - a migratory tribe of Bharmour, use goat milk to supplement their diet.

Temperate Zone in Western Himalayas

The temperate zone (Fig. 1.1) in western Himalayas corresponds to zone III drawn up on agro-ecological basis by the planning commission. It is physiographically a largely mountaneous tract (1800-2000 m amsl).

Bio-physical features

This zone is characterised by mountaneous tracts of varying altitudes, steep slopes etc. Steeper slopes receive higher intensity of radiation and are not conducive to the growth of vegetation. Conversely, vegetation abounds on the relatively gentler slopes. Moisture from snow-melt and rich organic matter generate dense vegetation of fruit and forest trees. Most of this zone consists of granite and other crystalline rocks of unforseliferous sediments.

An average rainfall of about 100 cm received during the monsoon months and its erratic distribution further necessitate suitable watershed management interventions.

A calendar year is generally divided into three main seasons viz. winter (October-February), summer (March-June) and monsoon (July-September) with a brief spring (mid February-March) and autumn (late September-October). Winter temperatures generally remain below 5°C and precipitation in the form of both rainfall and snow result from the western depression. The cold wave sets the migration of the nomadic shepherds to warmer valleys in the Himalayan foothills.

Summer temperatures remain above 20°C especially during April-June. The relative humidity remains about 40 per cent and the occasional hailstorms are known to cause extensive crop damage especially to apple, plum, apricot and peach. Rainfall during this period amounts to approximately 30 per cent of total annual rainfall.

Monsoon results from the South-west monsoon and about 50 per cent of total annual precipitation is received during this period. The temperatures are known to drop by 2-4°C and the relative humidity reaches 60 per cent. In addition to precipitation the "directional aspect" is crucial for development of vegetation. The Northern aspect receiving less direct sun-shine and facing the snowline has consequently, lower temperatures and high moisture retention which inturn create ideal agro-climatic conditions for the cultivation of temperate crops, especially fruit crops. The southern and western aspects suffer high moisture loss since they receive more direct sunshine and consequently they support a poor vegetation cover. The difference in temperature on the different aspects of hills can also be explained in terms of differential isolation i.e. by proximity or distance from the equator, for example isolation factor for the southern aspect is about 1.5-2.4 times higher than that for the northern aspect.

Socio-economic features

With horticulture occupying a prime position the land use system can be defined as horti-agri-pastoral. Forests account for about 25 per cent of the total geographic area of this zone. The forest cover varies from thick to sporadic. The chief species are kail, deodar, walnut and oaks etc. varying of course with altitude. The grasslands here are heavily grazed both by draught animals and by migratory graziers. The grass cover comprises mainly of Themeda, Arunidnella, Hamertheria, Heteropogon etc. and the legume component is mainly made up of white clover. While traditional millets such as Kongni, Cheenee, Kodda and Bathu, etc. are fast disappearing. Cash crops such as potato and apple form the backbone of the economy with apple alone accounting for more than 78 per cent of the area under fruits. Pome and stone fruits are also grown in this zone. It is estimated that this zone alone contributes 96 per cent of the total temperate fruit production in the state. The traditional almost static farming has changed into a dynamic horticulture led system. Further, with the emergence of the market, farm strategies are no longer focussed only on security and precautionary motives.

Livestock composition is dominated by small ruminants due to availability of larger 'support' area. Cattle form the bulk of livestock rearing and are dependent on natural grass alone. Significantly, fodder is not grown. Hay, collected from natural grasslands is the main source of livestock feed.

The introduction of apple to this zone (in Himachal Pradesh) was the comer stone of the overall horticultural development strategy. Apple production accounts for nearly 40 per cent of the fruit area and about 90 per cent of fruit production. The economic transition was facilitated by the simultaneous development of supporting infrastructure by way of research and extension mechanisms, higher budgetary allocations, government policy initiatives (e.g. launching of the small farmers developmental agency; SFDA etc., an ever increasing focus on infrastructure e.g. roads, market development and Agricultural credit concentration, especially for capital demanding cash crops, in zone of the state is truly impressive.

For decades prior to economic transformation/transition societies in the both temperate and cold desert regions, as elsewhere, were part of economic conditions that centred chiefly around the security and precautionary motives. As such, production of hardy crops e.g. millets etc. was common practice. In the absence of structured markets as we have today, barter trade was resorted to. The absence of physical infrastructure, low economic resource base etc. translated people to adapt their lifestyles to suit their specific locational situations. Stated simply, subsistence farming with a focus on crops that met this goal was the common practice. These 'adaptations' ensured that agriculture was practiced on 'sustainable' lines with better income distribution and equity consequences. Undeniably, such farming/agricultural practices evolved under low population pressure in the different agro-ecological regions and depended entirely on locally available resource, yet, they do hold lessons for us even today. This is to be appreciated in light of the realization that increasing populations and the consequent reduction of per capita resource availability dictate that a more efficient resource utilization regime be adopted. Such a regime is embodied in indigenous technological practices. Attempts to document such ITK also serve the purpose of preserving such knowledge for posterity, otherwise much of it would be lost due to the largely oral tradition of transferring such knowledge to successive generations. Such an exercise also has relevance for development agencies and extension services for providing relevant (technical) support for sustainable development and management of natural resources.

In the following chapters various ITK for managing watersheds in the temperate and cold desert areas of upper Himalayas in India are described, they are divided as per subject matters.

(introduction...)

In mountain watersheds, irrigation has been practiced as an art for about 3000 years now. Historical records bear testimony to the existence of a number of irrigation works in different parts of the country. In the Himalayas, the perennial river Ganges made it relatively easy to divert its flow through inundation channels. In the south, where rainfall is scanty, the practice of trapping rain water in large tanks and ponds for agricultural purposes is widely adopted.

From time immemorial, surface irrigation methods have been followed. The most effective irrigation method for a particular area depends on the slope of the land, the nature of the soil, the type of the crop and availability of funds.

In mountain areas, water continues to be the scarce commodity not only for irrigation but even for drinking and other domestic uses. This difficulty has been experienced very frequently, inspite of the fact that important rivers namely Sutlez, Beas, Ravi and their tributaries originate from these hills. The existing resources are further declining due to heavy biotic pressure and lack of management of existing resources. Most of our Agricultural/Horticultural activities are carried on under rainfed conditions and this require proper management of available water to be conserved for dry periods.

Sources of irrigation water

In the hill region, the scope of boring tubewells, canals and even lift irrigation is limited, such facilities are confined to the low laying areas. Therefore, the most common source of irrigation remains the small water channels locally called Kuhls which intact accounts for 85.83 per cent of the total area under irrigation in hills (Fig. 2.1).

Fig. 2.1 Well planned Kuhl irrigation water distribution system

In cold deserts, some villages get water for irrigating their lands from some perennial torrents. In Spiti valley, the source of irrigation water is generally local nallas. Glacial water in cold deserts of Himachal Pradesh which forms the prime source of sustaining life in the region is brought to the field by making Kuhls (Water Channels).

In Kinnaur and other regions, the source of irrigation as well as drinking water is melting snow on the high peaks which runs downward in the shape of small and big nallahas (streams) and also spring out at certain points.

Construction of kuhls (water channels)

In cold deserts of Himachal pradesh kuhls (water channels) are built along the hill gradient for maintaining proper gravity for irrigation (Fig. 2.2). Kuhls are commonly found in West Himalayas cold deserts. The technique for the preparation of kuhls for irrigation purposes seems to have originated since Babylonian times, it is still one of the commonest ways of bringing water to the crops. If the river has a steep gradient, water is diverted into a canal some distance upstream and led along a contour so that it can flow to fields by gravity.

Fig. 2.2 "Kuhl" - open channel irrigation system

In dry temperate zone, kuhls (wooden water channels) are generally made by making notches at the natural water sources and the water is diverted to the fields for irrigation to different terraces, using the natural gravitational flow of water (Fig. 2.3). Since the topography of the area consists of very high slopes and rocky terrain's, wooden water channels are used at many places as water passes from one place to another. The water channels are built and managed by the villagers with no government assistance. In the lower areas of H.P. bamboo pipes are commonly used as irrigation channels on depressions/small nala (Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.3 Wooden Water Channel

In west Himalayan cold deserts for the optimum harnessing of water for irrigation, water channels are constructed along the natural gradients. The irrigation channels (kuhls) are diverted from river tributaries by making use of the natural gradients thus the level of water is higher than that of the cultivated fields.

Fig. 2.4 Bamboo pipe - commonly used for irrigation water flow on depressions/small nala from one field/terrace to another

In upper Kinnaur, the channels (kuhls) are simply dug in the ground to regulate the flow of water. However, where the digging of channels is difficult or the channel has to pass through a village path, underground channels covered with slates are constructed. However, in some parts the wooden channels are also used which are put like a bridge over the path. These channels are made by making a deep grove in the tree trunk or a thick branch.

Distribution of kuhl water in fields

In the cold deserts of Himachal Pradesh, participatory management is employed for distribution of water. All disputes regarding the distribution of water through kuhls (water channels) are amicably settled without hampering the water requirement of any period.

In the West Himalayan cold deserts, all the irrigation channels (Kuhls) cannot be run satisfactorily due to non-availability of sufficient water from Nallas/Khads. This is because of scanty snowfall during the winter months. The majority of hamlets, which lie on the plateaus on the sides of main river get water from the streams which trickles down from the cliffs overhanging the plateaus. These hamlets are the worst off for water, for in the year of scanty snowfall, the streams dwindle quickly and dry up in the beginning of August. Additional snowfall in winter results in less water in natural springs during the season, whereas less snowfall in winter result in the reduction of level in natural springs during summer and consequently crop suffer.

Kuhls are a time tested community made water channels for sharing the glacial water for ensuring cent per cent irrigation in otherwise dry and porous soils.

In Spiti valley, the farmers have developed the irrigation water distribution system on the basis of their land holdings, in which every field is irrigated timely. So there is no dispute regarding the maintenance of kuhls and irrigation water distribution.

In Kinnaur and other regions, nallas passing through a village are harvested on turn basis called pala. Temporary channels are dug by the farmers towards their fields. The whole community is divided on the basis of number of farm families and one family gets one full water day to irrigate their fields turnwise. For example, if there are 20 farm families in a village, the turn falls after every 20 days. But two adjoining families may share the water for half day each when there is turn of either of the two families. This way these two families get a chance to irrigate their fields after a gap of 10 days rather than 20 days. This way the distribution of water is so well managed that maximum use of water takes place in a particular village. The turn of a family comes/starts around 2000 to 2200 hrs on a particular day and all the members of the family are engaged in the job on its turn.

In upper Kinnaur, the irrigation technique is much more pronounced. The fields are generally divided into small compartments by making earth bunds to allow water to stand in the field for a longer duration for saturating the soil (Fig. 2.5). Hence need for second irrigation arises only after 20 to 25 days even in those agricultural crops which otherwise require irrigation after a gap of 10-15 days. At the first turn of irrigation, first compartment is irrigated; followed by second and so on. On the second turn of irrigation, however these compartments are irrigated in reverse order, i.e. sixth compartment is irrigated first followed by fifth and so on.

Fig. 2.5 Irrigation water application

In temperate areas of cold deserts crop cultivation without irrigation is not possible because precipitation takes place in the form of snowfall. People take advantage of glacial water and perform collective operations for effective distribution and ensured supply of this scarce source. The management of water in a particular field is regulated by apportioning into different compartments because of the season. The mouth of first compartment is closed to regulate the flow of water towards the second compartment (Fig. 2.6). The same method is adopted to irrigate the following compartment. This results in raising the height of channel in front of the first compartment than the channel in front of the second compartment and so on. Now when this field is irrigated during its second turn, the water flows straight towards the fourth compartment. This practice prevents the washing off the upper fertile layers during irrigation.

Fig. 2.6 Irrigation water distribution with provision of indigenous control system

In the entire Spiti valley, the first irrigation is done 40 days after sowing of crop takes place during April. In the initial stage of watering from the Kuhl to field, the ladies bring water to the field by the use of Urma which is made from animals horn. As per the turn pertaining the Baraghar watering/irrigation is done by constructing small beds in the fields. This method is time consuming and laborious. But on the other hand this method checks the loss of nutrients by leaching. Uniform watering of the plants with equal flow, checks the nutrient loss from field to field and from one bed to another. In Ladakh and other regions standardized irrigation schedule for different crops is followed.

The general schedule is:

Irrigation number	Stage of crop growth
	Local name	English name
I	Tol Chu	Germination
II	Sak Chu	Growing
III	Non Chu	Flowering
IV	Gep Chu	Seed setting
V	Do Chu	Crop ready for harvest

The "Gep Chu" or 4th irrigation depends on the colour status of the crop. If crop seems yellow in colour "Gep Chu" is delayed. However, the colour position is blackish "Gep Chu" is hastened.

The farmers have developed irrigation schedule matching the stages of crop growth. Thus, irrigation during critical stages results in the maximization of crop yield as well as water use efficiency.

Use of kuhl water for running water mills

Kuhls are built along the hill gradient for maintaining proper gravity for irrigation and running water mills (Fig. 2.7a & b). Wooden water channels are also used for running water-flour mills. These wooden channels are generally made by making notches at the natural water sources and the water is diverted to the water mill, using the natural gravitational flow of water. Since the topography of the area consists of very high slopes and rocky terrain's, wooden water channels are used at many places as water passes from one place to another.

Granite stones are used for grinding food grains. Long wooden channel placed at steep gradient is used for maintaining the high speed of the water flow. This is necessary for maintaining the high speed of the water mills wheel (Fig. 2.7a/b).

Fig. 2.7a Water mill (outside)

Fig. 2.7a Water mill (inside)

Now a days water mills are very rare. Water mill technology is in an extinct stage, because of power supply availability and less grain production. Food is purchased from cooperative societies or private shops now a days.

Methods of irrigation

Flooding of glacial water for higher crop productivity

In most Himalayan cold deserts water is brought in channels from glacial melts for irrigating the fields. Flooding the fields with the glacial water for improving crop productivity is also common.

The deposition of fresh silt with unweathered minerals (especially lime) forms glacier source of fresh salts. The glacier melted water is often below 2°C which protects the crop from different kinds of diseases.

Indigenous drip irrigation

The practice of using pitcher water as a source of irrigation on new fruit plantation in sandy loam/loamy sand soils, in areas of canty rainfall is prevalent in temperate districts of Himachal Pradesh. The pitcher is placed in soil and the new plant is planted close to it. The pitcher is filled with water during summer months (April-June) and stone/slate lid is placed on the top. The roots draw moisture/water from pitcher which is turn reduces the mortality. The pitcher once filled, supply sufficient moisture for atleast two weeks and then again it is filled with water.

Bamboo drip irrigation system

In this system of irrigation bamboo channels (open) are used for irrigating the fields (Fig. 2.8). This system is common in North-East regions of India. Small holes are made at the internodes of open bamboo channels, from where water gets trickled down in the field. These channels are placed along the natural gradients. In these channels, no uniform head for water trickling is maintained.

Fig. 2.8 Bamboo drip irrigation system

Manual irrigation in vegetables

In the initial stage of watering vegetables, people bring water to their fields with the help of buckets (Fig. 2.9) and in Spiti valley ladies bring water to their fields using Urma which is made from animals horn. In this method after bringing water in buckets, water is supplied to the vegetables with the help of lota (mug), whereas in case of Urma, irrigation is done by constructing small beds in the fields. But this method is too laborious and time consuming.

Fig. 2.9 Hand watering in vegetables

Water harvesting methods

Small ponds for spring water collection

Another method is the collection of spring water in small reservoirs scattered at intervals on the high uplands and then drawing water from these ponds when required (Fig. 2.10a, b & c). It is a common practice in cold deserts and temperate wet Himalayas. Water from these ponds is used for irrigating crops and also for drinking purposes.

Fig. 2.10a Well planned spring irrigation water distribution in field

Fig. 2.10b Village spring water pond for drinking water

Fig. 2.10c A tank of spring water 'Bawri'

Harvesting of dew and fog water

In plains and in valleys occurrence of dew and "pale" is very common after the receding of monsoon. After monsoon the humidity remains quite high (85%) in the atmosphere. During night time, temperature falls down sharply resulting in the formation of more water molecules from vaporous. As they are heavier, they fall on soil surface and make the layer moist and wet.

In the hills, there is traditional practice to plough the fields early in the morning before dew or fog water is evaporated. By ploughing, moisture is mixed with soil particles in the plough layer i.e. 9"-12". This moisture is well retained by soil. If soil is clayey in nature, retention of water remains for a longer time and becomes a source of soil moisture. It is quite useful for land preparation in October-November and for the sowing of rabi crops like wheat, barley and pulses.

Roof water harvesting

In the lower areas of Himachal Pradesh during the rainy season, roof water is collected in dugout structures which are known as "diggi" in Kangra district and '"Khati" in Hamirpur and Bilaspur districts (Fig. 2.11). These structures are dug in hard rocks. Not only roof water but also surface water is collected in dugout structures.

Fig. 2.11 Water harvesting in dugout structure called 'khati' or 'diggi''

Harvesting of rain water

In the hills, rains are erratic and torrential. Relatively high percentage of rain water goes as run-off and stream flow. It carries fertile soil and plant nutrients which makes the soil degraded and barren. In some areas this excess water is stored directly in the farm ponds, depression or stream flow or is diverted to safer points where it is stored (Fig. 2.12a, b & c).

Fig. 2.12a Water harvesting

Fig. 2.12b Water harvesting

The stored water in ponds and depressions is used for irrigational purposes, as a life saver or for supplementary irrigation during lean periods. It is also stored in dugout structures. In some areas during summer, it is used as drinking water humans, livestock and for other domestic purposes.

Fig. 2.12c Village rain water pond for irrigation and livestock

The ponds with time are sealed, with silt and clay particles thus infiltration/percolation losses are reduced and ponding time and volume of water is increased.

Harvesting of water from snow melting

Harvesting of water is also done by constructing water ponds and water is collected in these ponds from melting snow (Fig. 2.13).

Use of Pang (Spang) Grass for Controlling Seepage and Side Losses in Water Tanks and Irrigation Kuhls.

Fig. 2.13 Village water pond where water is collected from snow melting

In Ladakh Pang (Spang) grass is used as the inner lining of zings (water ponds) and irrigation kuhls for checking percolation losses (Fig. 2.14a & b). The use of spang grass which is growing profusely in Ladakh, explains its non-permeability properties similar to that of polythene sheet or cement lining. Its chemistry is required to be analysed, as the farmers claim its utility in water retention is far superior than the polythene/cement.

Fig. 2.14a Village water pond where Pang (spang) grass is used. for controlling seepage losses

Fig. 2.14b Village water pond

Moisture conservation through mulching

In Kinnaur, covering the surface of soil with chilgoza tree needles and grass from the Kandas (hill tops) is a common mulching practice (Fig. 2.15). Mulching conserves soil moisture in the fields. It also helps in the moderation of soil temperature. In this way hydro-thermal regime of soil is improved. However, the continuous use of chilgoza tree needles increases the acidity of the soil.

Fig. 2.15 In situ moisture conservation with locally available tree leaves and grasses

In the hilly areas, ploughing is done, which aids in moisture conservation, as the soil acts as mulch.

In Ladakh, farmers regulate optimum irrigation by inserting a belcha (spade) in the soil If it is completely inserted (front portion), the land is considered to be properly irrigated. Similarly, in a few other cases, mud is thrown in the air. Its splitting into pieces shows proper irrigation. Complete insertion of the. front portion of belcha (spade) or throwing of mud in the air and its consequent splitting into pieces indicate the soil moisture level at field capacity, where 100 per cent moisture is available to the crops.

Drainage

During rainy season the rains are torrential, which causes splash erosion resulting in the sorting of particles and the formation of false compact layer on the surface. It yields water pounding and subsequently water logging. Crops such as maize, capsicum, tomato which are grown during this season are very sensitive to water logging. In our traditional agriculture there is a common practice that during the preparation of a field the slope of a field, is kept inside which is provided with a channel to take excess water from that field to a safer place, from where it is disposed to stream or nalla through grassed water ways. The grassed water ways are kept permanently and help in the drainage. These channels and grassed water ways are positioned in such a way that they do not hinder any agricultural activity such as ploughing, hoeing and harvesting.

Use of smoke for protecting fruit crops from frost damage

In the lower areas of Himachal Pradesh, Mango plants are mostly damaged by frost injury during winter months i.e. December and January (Fig. 2.16). Smoke layer protects the mango plants from frost injury. This practice is common in the lower areas of Himachal Pradesh.

Fig. 2.16 Effect of smoke on frost

Soil management

Cultural practices

In West Himalayan region, in the month of March/April, when snow melts and weather condition improves, the bunds and comers of the fields are dug-out and weeds and grasses are removed with the help of spade and clods. The grasses or weeds are beaten up and then soil is separated from these clods and collected in lower fields.

This practice of removing weeds and grasses from bunds and corners by digging helps in weed control in the cultivated fields. Secondly area under crops remains the same as that of previous crop i.e. area is not wasted for weeds and grasses. Thirdly the soil added in lower fields from the bunds of upper field is rich in nutrients and it improves the soil fertility.

Use of broader plough in upper valleys

Ploughs are broadened in Ladakh by attaching flat wooden pieces to both sides of the iron blade. This indigenous plough is preferred over the one available in the market.

This technology seems to have twofold functions of saving labour and that of stabilizing the loose sandy strata in one ploughing action, which suits the small terraces.

Sheet erosion control

It is not a damaging form of erosion, mainly because it is often not recognised and seldom treated. It accounts for the loss of billions of tonnes of soil every year. Due to splash of rain drops particles are knocked loose and then carried away by the runoff. The sheet erosion result into rill and gullies which are controlled by very cheap treatments. Sheet erosion is more apparent in forest areas that are devoid of ground cover or wastelands with very few standing trees.

There is traditional practice to keep surface maximum covered with grasses, shrubs etc., grazing is done in rotation and is allowed only during certain times. It is avoided during the flowering and seed setting stages of grasses. Fibrous rooted shrubs and grasses planted as hedges along the contour of the land slow the runoff, weaken the erosive power of water and cause it to deposit its load of valuable soil behind the hedgerows. As a result the runoff proceeds gently down the slope where hedges have been planted at the correct vertical interval without erosive effect In the foot hills, erosive capacity of stream flow is also reduced by spurs of loose boulders.

Traditional rainfed farming

In the hilly areas, most of the area is rainfed except for a few pockets in valleys where irrigation facilities are existing. The choice of crop and rotation, completely depends on crops which require less volume of water. For rotation, legumes are important as mixed crop. During rotation, when rainy season erosion permitting crops are grown, such as cowpea, 'kuth', these form integral part of the mixed cropping system. The crops are chosen as per their nutrition e.g. from old ages protein rich pulses are part of cropping pattern. The coarse grains like 'phaphra', 'chulai' are also grown very commonly which are very rich in nutrition.

Within the premises of the house it is mandatory to have fruit plants such as citrus, mango, anar which provide seasonal fruits rich in vitamin C., carbohydrates etc. The fields are well protected with biofence of thorny shrubs or their cut pieces.

The traditional rainfed farming is done irrespective of land with respect to slope and other characteristics. There are chances of sheet erosion but with traditional knowledge, crop rotation is adopted in such a way that during peak runoff periods sowing of close growing crops provide protection to the soil.

Terracing

From old times, land in the hills has been put under cultivation on scientific lines as cultivation is done up to 25-100 degree slope, where there are many chances of landslips, sheet and gully erosion. But with 'bench terracing practices' the menace of soil erosion is controlled and is very common in hill fanning.

The terraces are constructed across the slope i.e. along the contour (Fig. 2.17a, b, c, d, e, f, g & h). The size of the terrace is decided by the prevailing degree of slope. The terraces are supported by risers of suitable heights and width. The height of riser is again decided by the degree of slope. The risers are sometime made of loose boulders supported by grasses. The roots of grasses help in binding and keeping the boulders intact at a place. The roots of grasses help in drainage of excess water. With the traditional knowledge, farmers are keeping the risers toward inner slopes. In paddy growing areas the risers are erected to facilitate the pounding of water in the field. This type of bunding and terracing is continuing from centuries and terraces are still intact. The bunds are again used for growing palatable grasses which is used as fodder for livestock and trees are meant for fuel, fodder and fibre. The examples are beul, shisham, mango etc. In lower areas the bench terraces are known as "khet". Sometime on the risers contour hedge of grass like khus, local grasses also established.

Fig. 2.17a Stone terrace making

Fig. 2.17b Stone terrace wall

Fig. 2.17c Traditional symmetrical terraces

Fig. 2.17.d Terrace slicing in crop field

Fig. 2.17e Earthen terraces

Fig. 2.17f Crop field terraces and community forestry

Fig. 2.17g Stone terraces along the slope

Fig. 2.17h Bench terrace fortified with vegetative measures

Use of maddim (a plain wooden structure) for field levelling.

Maddim is used for levelling ploughed lands. A heavy stone is put on the maddim for increasing the pressure required for levelling. Sometimes, a man may also sit instead of a heavy stone.

Such an indigenous technology for field levelling is called planking. With this practice, there is very good seed soil contact and very good germination of the crops. Secondly, there is moisture conservation in the fields. Thirdly small soil clods are pressed and broken into finer particles and this way soil structure is improved.

Curved land ploughing for intensive land preparation; soil conservation and water retention

In west Himalayan cold deserts, ploughing is done in a curved (sword like) manner from the bottom to the top of the slopy land holdings.

Ploughing land holdings in a sword like pattern ensures proper land preparation which includes proper ploughing of the corners which otherwise would have remained unploughed. The ploughing of slopy lands from bottom to top also helps in soil conservation as it checks the loosened soil strata falling from the upper side to the lower. The curved pattern is useful in maintaining infiltration rate of water which otherwise gets wasted with sudden runoff.

Conserving productive soil layer against wind erosion

In west Himalayan cold deserts, fields are irrigated in autumn so that the top layer is prevented from being blown away. In spring the moistened soil eases ploughing.

The productive soil layer, which is very thin, needs conservation against heavy wind erosion, a common feature of the cold deserts. This appropriate soil conservation technique also helps in easy and timely ploughing for meeting the requirement of short growing season. The moist upper layer of soil which gets frozen in winter also serves as a protection against wind erosion.

Cultivation of levelled/flat lands for preventing soil erosion

In west Himalayan cold deserts, cultivation practices are confined to the levelled/flat lands only.

This practice helps not only in the rational land use but also checks soil erosion in otherwise sandy and loose strata.

Contouring of slopy lands: Ethno-engineering for soil conservation

In west Himalayan cold deserts farmers have developed this technology for cultivation of slopy lands by constructing terraces comprising of plots and sub-plots by using small stones. Stone wall fencing is also constructed for individual land holdings. Terracing of slopy lands helps in conserving soil and moisture and prevents soil erosion. This also helps to carry out other field operations including proper use of irrigation water for checking the surface runoff.

Use of loose boulders spurs for reducing soil erosion

In some areas, people use loose boulders spurs for reducing the cutting effect of stream flow in a small nalla (Choes) (Fig. 2.18).

Fig. 2.18 Loose boulders spurs - reduce cutting effect of stream flow in 'choes'

Use of loose boulders diversion dam with spillway in centre for reducing soil erosion

This method is very common in lower areas of Himachal Pradesh (Fig. 2.19). These dams are constructed across the streams for controlling soil loss.

Use of vegetation, live check of bamboo pieces and loose boulders

In this method of vegetation, live check of bambo pieces and loose boulders are used for controlling gully erosion (Fig. 2.20). This practice is also common in lower areas.

Fig. 2.19. Loose boulders diversion dam with spillway in the centre

Fig. 2.20 Gully plugging by

a) Vegetation
b) Live check
c) Loose boulders stabilized with grasses

Use of river bed soils

The river bed soils are used for raising crops (Fig. 2.21). These soils are rich in nutrients as nutrients are removed with soil from hilly slopes and are deposited in the river beds.

Fig. 2.21 Recovering river bed soil

Soil fertility management

Proper soil management, ensuring continued maintenance and building up of fertility at a high level is indispensable for the profitable use of agricultural lands. While chemical fertilizers introduce extra concentrated supplies of readily available plant nutrients to the soil, the beneficial effect of organic manures predominantly lies in furnishing humus forming material to bring about improvement in the soil structure, water holding capacity, microbial population and its activity, base exchange capacity and resistance to soil erosion. Much of the plant food removed by the crops is restored to the soil through the application of organic manures.

Soil management by crop residue harvesting

This practice is prevalent in west Himalayan cold deserts. Barley and wheat stumps (in Zanskar) are pulled out by hand along with the complete root system. Soil is softened by a light irrigation a day before. Wheat is often pulled out while standing, but kneeling or squatting is practiced for barley. Handful of these plants are beaten up against the legs (occasionally a small apron is worn) to shake off most of the earth. These bundles are then piled up like the tiles of a roof. The ears of the lower row are covered and protected from birds by the roots of the upper stacks. In cold deserts of Himachal Pradesh, barley and buckwheat (in double cropping farming system) are also pulled out by roots. This helps in uprooting weeds, soil loosening and porosity maintenance for the coming crop.

Other practice is to harvest crops as close to the grounds as possible. The roots are made to stay in soil for humus production. Very little plant material (stem and roots) is allowed to be left in the soil (in Ladakh) as a protective measure against the soil borne diseases. This practice also increases the fodder resource in winters. Retention" of roots in soil (in single cropping) contributes towards humus availability which improves the soil structure, porosity and water holding capacity of the soil.

Soil mixing with night soils

This practice is prevalent in Ladakh and other parts. Soil with human excreta is mixed and broadcasted over the fields during winter months. Soil is collected from cultivated land holdings and particularly from field bunds of sub-plots for mixing.

The night soil/human excreta possess immense manurial potentiality as it contains the major plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. So the addition of night soil/human excreta along with soil from cultivated field improves the soil fertility. The practice of collecting soil from cultivated land and fields helps in easy ploughing during summer cropping.

Organic manuring, collection and management

Organic manures derived from plant and animal resource, are valuable byproducts of farming and allied industries. Organic manures which is bulky in nature but supply the plant nutrients in small quantities are termed as bulky organic manures e.g. farm yard manure, rural and town compost, night soil, green manure etc., whereas those containing higher percentage of major plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potash are known as concentrated organic manures e.g. oil cakes, goat manure, sheep and poultry manure, blood and meat-meals, etc.

Flocks of sheep and goats, contribute towards tribal economy by way of milk, meat, wool and manure. These flocks when taken for grazing are tied with small bags which cover their anal parts so that the excreta falls right into the bag.

This region is highly sandy with low soil fertility status. The collection of dropping of sheep and goats by tieing bags is indicative of indigenous wisdom to meet out the shortage of manure. This manure of the droppings of sheep and goats contains 3% nitrogen, 1% phosphorus and 2% potassium.

In Spiti valley, organic manuring is done once a year because of mono-cropping pattern in the months of September-October after the crop. The manure is broadcasted in the entire field, which is followed by ploughing for thorough mixing. The richest manure is called Chaksa which comprises of human excreta and is collected in separate dry latrine pit. The main reason for its nutritional value is that even the bones of animals are thrown in the excreta which adds phosphorus and calcium to the manure.

The daily per capita availability of night soil, human urine and nutrients contained in it is as under:

Particulars	Faeces (g)	Urine(s)
Quantity (natural condition)	133.00	1200.00
Quantity (dry)	30.30	64.00
Nitrogen	2.10	12.10
Phosphorus	1.64	1.80
Potassium	0.73	2.22

This data shows that night soil and human urine have a great manurial potential with regard to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Due to this potential, it is considered good manure by the farmers.

Secondly cattle dung is collected in heaps within cattlesheds during winter months, so that it decomposes under relatively high temperature conditions. Then it is placed out in the open during summer in the form of heaps for further decomposition. Actually the cattle dung contains 0.2% nitrogen, 0.1% phosphorus and 0.15% potassium and cattle urine contains 0.6% nitrogen, 0.1% phosphorus and 0.5% potassium. Due to these immense manurial potentialities of cattle dung and urine, the use of this manure is very much popular among farmers.

Manuring is required for wheat, paddy and maize, which are the main crops of the Bharmour and Pangi regions. The traditional means of manure are as follows:

i) Dung of livestock, mostly cattle, collected from the sheds, pens and camps of livestock

ii) The leaves and grasses which were used as bedding for the animals, got soaked with the excreta/urine of livestock and were then collected periodically.

iii) Feeding of sheep and goats in the fields: This method of manuring is very much in vogue in those places which are visited by the Gaddi graziers, whether enroute to their camps or on move with their herds. The Gaddis are paid for this benefit. These traditional practices continues unchanged. The only improvement that has been made is that the heaps of cow dung are well covered with something or the other in order to protect them from rains and snow.

iv) In the wet temperate Himalayas, green and dried pine needles are collected in heaps and used as bedding material (Fig. 2.22 & 2.23). Before using as bedding material these pine needles are cut into small pieces.

Fig. 2.22 Green pine needles cut into pieces before spreading for bedding in cattle yard

Fig. 2.23 Green pine needles spread for bedding in cattle yard

In the absence of chemical fertilizers, organic manuring is the chief mode of soil fertilization. All efforts are made to collect and use animal dropping and for their subsequent decomposition along with the leaves and grasses which are used in manuring the crops. This is the traditional organic manure and is most readily available to the farmers. It is the product of decomposition of the liquid and solid excreta of livestock, stored in the sheds, pens and camps of livestock along with varying amounts of straws or other litter used as bedding. This farm yard manure/compost prepared from farm litter, liquid and solid excreta of livestock contains 0.5% nitrogen, 0.2% phosphorus and 0.5% potassium.

To enhance the productivity, people in Kinnaur still use the farm yard manure. It is worth mentioning that here animals are kept primarily to meet the need of manure.

Fig .2.24 FYM heaps

Donkeys, cows, goats and sheep are the main source of manure. The manure is collected either from the cowsheds inside the house or the cowsheds outside the house. Generally, the ground floor in each house is used as a cowshed so that animals can be looked after in a better way during winter months. The dung is put outside the house in a heap form in lower areas, whereas, in upper areas, it is directly put in small heaps in the fields (Fig. 2.24 and 2.25). These small heaps of dung are covered with a thin layer of soil to avoid the dispersion of manure by wind. The manure is directly mixed with the soil while ploughing. Farm yard manure is transported to the fields in Kilta (bamboo container) by people's participation (Fig. 2.26 a, b & c) and also by horses (Fig. 2.27).

Fig. 2.25 FYM heaps in the field

Fig. 2.26a Transport of FYM in kilta (bamboo container)

Fig. 2.26b Transporting FYM to field

Fig. 2.26c Peoples' participation in FYM transport

Fig. 2.27 Transport of FYM on horses

Amongst the manures, the cowdung is preferred the most. According to most farmers the sheep and goat dung may lead to burning of crops if applied in excess. Ass dung though used is not preferred much. On an average 125 to 250 qtls of manure is used per acre by the farmers throughout the Kinnaur region.

The practice of keeping small heaps of manure in open field with soil coverage in high altitude zones helps in better decomposition due to the maintenance of better temperature conditions. Use of sheep and goat manure in large quantities leads to burning of crops. The burning of crops is due to the toxic effects of high levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in goat and sheep manures. The goat and sheep manure contains 3 % nitrogen, 1 % phosphorus and 2 % potassium.

Use of ash in Ladakh

i) Nutrient recycling

The inhabitants of this entire region use cattle dung, shrubs and bushes as the main source of fuel. Ashes available, there upon, are mixed either with household waste or human excreta. Sometimes ashes are also broadcasted in the fields.

Mixing of ash with household waste and human excreta aids in nutrient availability and recycling. Ash primarily meets the deficiency of potash. Availability of phosphorus is also ensured. In addition to this, human excreta and household waste also contains good amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

ii) Softening of hard soils

In Nubra valley, hard soils are softened by putting ash obtained from cowdung, sheep/goat manure, fuelwood etc.

Through this practice upper layers of soils are not only softened but their fertility status is also improved, as ash contains phosphorus.

iii) Increased size of potatoes through the use of ash and goat manure

A mixture of kitchen ash and goat manure is used in kitchen gardens (Nubra valley) for growing potatoes.

The spreading of this mixture as an organic manure, increases the size of potatoes on account of optimum supply of nutrients in otherwise nutrient deficient soils. Secondly organic manure improves the soil structure, porosity and water holding capacity of the soils. In this way there is an overall improvement in physical, chemical and biological properties like microbial population etc., which has increased the size of potatoes.

iv) Poultry manure and ash for increased vegetable production

This specific technology is used only in case of tomato, brinjal, capsicum and cauliflower. Kitchen ash and poultry manure mix enhances vegetable production levels.

Stage of farm yard manure in cultivated fields

In west Himalayan cold deserts, FYM with a thin coverage of soil is kept in small heaps in the fields from October to March. With the onset of summer months it is spread in the open field.

Coverage of organic manure (FYM) with soil in open fields throughout winter helps in regulating (heap) temperature necessary for proper decomposition of FYM.

Green manuring

In Bharmour area the practice of green manuring is localized in a few villages (paddy growing). Leaves and twigs of wild bushes such as basuti and kaimal are used.

Use of goat manure

In Ladakh, goat manure is considered to be more nutritious. Goat manure when added to millet fields improves production. Goats are specially penned in these plots/fields.

Goat manure improves not only the millet production but also its taste. According to farmers vegetables grown in goat manure have longer keeping quality. It is easy to plough fields manured with goat excreta. Actually with the addition of goat excreta, there is improvement in the physical properties like soil structure, water holding capacity and porosity. There is also an improvement in soil fertility as it contains 3% nitrogen, 1% phosphorus and 2% potassium.

Use of sachik soil for higher crop yield

Yellow soil (Sachik) found in Tagloom area is used as manure for enhancing crop production. Yak loads of this yellowish/dark brown coloured soil are scattered in the fields.

Biofencing with seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides)

This practice is prevalent in Spiti and other regions. There is a common practice to provide biofencing with seabuckthorn in cold deserts in general and Spiti in particular (Fig. 2.28).

The biofence of seabuckthorn being thorny in nature protects crop from stray animals. Its multipurpose utility as a nitrogen fixer, checks against soil erosion, conservation of soil and moisture, source of fuelwood and indigenous drug (rich source of vitamin C) makes it a promising plants for eco-economic rehabilitation of the region.

Fig. 2.28 Biofence - common in hills and is of thorny shrubs/cut piece of thorny plants

Sprawling of ash dust in cucurbits and other vegetable crops

In the west Himalayan cold deserts, ash dust is a product obtained after the combustion of fuelwood. It has been observed that dusting of material in the fields enhance early maturity and high yield of vegetable crops.

The reason for the early maturity of cucurbits and vegetable crops is due to the fact that ash dust contains sufficient quantity of phosphorus in available form to the plants. Secondly, in cucurbits the ash dust has been used to repel the insect pest of the crops. Thirdly, amendments of ash dust in the soil, improves soil structure and fertility. Ash dust is also useful in enhancing the maturity of bulb crops which normally takes 6-7 months for obtaining economic yield.

Drought power according to soil texture

In west Himalayan cold deserts, ploughing is generally carried out by dzos, however in sandy situations horses are employed for its speedy completion. In Turpuk of Nubra valley ploughing is done by a single horse.

Sandy soil have less soil strength than clayey soil. Due to this reason, the drought power requirement for ploughing varies according to soil texture.

Silviculture

Wood lots

i) Sacred wood lots: It is an old traditional practice to conserve and protect an entire forest or a small wood lot in the name of the village Deity (Kul Daveta). This is prevalent in every village of the mountainous region of India, particularly so in Himachal Pradesh, Garhwal and Kumaon hills and also Kashmir hills. A temple along with a hut or shelter is constructed to keep the items/utensils of the village Diety. All religious rites are performed in its complex and no body is allowed to fell the trees. This is also a common practice in the hills of Kangra, Mandi and Shimla districts. It is also seen that a perennial water source is managed either in the forest or near it, for common use by the village for drinking purpose.

ii) Private and community wood lots: Community and private forests (wood lots) are protected at the community level. In community forests, the whole area is divided into small block or compartments and each compartment is allotted to the inhabitants for rotational lopping of fodder particularly oaks woodlots during lean (winter) season. Frequent fuel wood collection is permitted only in case of twigs and/or branches which are carried and stocked in a traditional manner (Fig. 3.1a, b & c).

Fig. 3.1a Fire wood collection

Fig. 3.1b Fire wood collection

Villagers employ or engage a caretaker for the protection of private or community forests. No one is allowed to lop and cut trees for fuel wood. If some one is found doing so, the caretaker confiscates his/her sickle/axe and ask him to appear before the village panchayat, which imposes a penalty on him in the form of monetary fine or otherwise. Every household in the village contributes some grain or cash in each crop season for the caretaker's maintenance. In water logged areas along with kuhal or nallas people raise plantations of Salix (Bhains), Alnus (Kunish) or other moisture loving trees. Farmers make extensive use of the wood from both private and community forests for building all kinds of houses, shelters etc. (Fig. 3.2a, b & c) and have devised their own technologies for postharvest processing of the wood (Fig. 3.2d & e).

Fig. 3.1c Stocking of fire wood

Fig 3.2a Traditional roofing made of wood and slates

Fig 3.2b Mountain wooden house

Fig. 3.2c Traditional mountain wood house

Katha extraction

The heart wood chips of Acacia catechu trees are boiled in earthen pots along with water for about 12 hours or till the boiling mixture attains a thick syrup like consistency (Fig. 3.3a). This thick liquid is poured into moulds dugout in fine sand which absorbs the tannic acid (liquid) and leaves behind a residue of catchin (Katha) in a crystallized form (Fig. 3.3b). On cooling it solidifies and then is cut into small bricks for sale in the market under the trade name of 'katha'. In India it is consumed with beetle leaves and used medicinally for intestinal disorders and is known to improve digestion.

Fig. 3.2d Timber sawing

Fig. 3.2e Timber saw

Fig. 3.3a Katha extraction process

Fig. 3.3b Katha extraction process

Traditional minor forest resources management

In the lower hills of Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and of Jammu & Kashmir, Acacia catechu (Khair) for katha, Pinus roxburghii (chirpine) for resin. Acacia nilotica (Kikar) for tannin and gums and Grewia optiva (Beul) for fodder and fibre are well known. The villagers manage and protect these trees/wood lots and obtain high economic returns. These wood lots are inaccessible for fuel and timber requirements. The villagers also get seasonal employment in these forests for the collection of value added minor forest products. Similarly in the Kinnaur district of Himachal state, which is known for the production of Pinus gerardiana (chilgoza) seeds and Prunus armenica (chuli) fruits, the local people have right to collect the same from the forest and to sell them in the market for economic remuneration. The Government forests of these species are managed by the villagers as common properties. These forests are divided into small blocks and each block is allowed to a family for protection, management and collection of produce.

Agri-silviculture

Jhuming or shifting cultivation

It is a widely practiced farming system in the hills of north-east India, locally known as "podu" cultivation. It is believed that this farming system originated in the Neolithic period around 7000 BC.

This system involves cultivation of crops on steep slopes. Land is cleared by cutting forests, bushes etc. upto stump level in December-January, leaving the cut material for drying and then finally burning it to make the land ready for dibbling of seeds of different crops before the onset of rains (Fig. 3.4). The cultivation is confined to the village boundary and the total area brought under cultivation depends upon the family size. After 2-3 years, the area is abandoned for regrowth and a new site is selected to repeat the process.

Shifting cultivation was good at the time when it emerged, because mixed cropping on slopes under rainfed conditions and a dependence on local natural resources only kept disturbance of the soil to a minimum and furthermore its fertility was allowed to replenish adequately. But now, due to increase in both the population and the effective area under this farming system, it is considered to be hazardous because it is leading to resource degradation and ecological imbalance due to deforestation, increase of soil erosion and silting of reservoirs which further lead to floods. It is also a low technology and high labour intensive system.

Fig. 3.4 Forest burning for shifting cultivation

Various research institutes of ICAR, GOI and State Government working in the north-eastern part are recommending at scientifically tempered Agro-horti-silvi pastoral system as an alternative to shifting cultivation. Despite its adverse effects on the eco-system and low productivity it still persists because it is an integral part of the socio-cultural fabric of tribal life in the northeast and is clearly linked with their religious rites and festivals e.g. Agalmaka, Miamua, Rongchugala and Ahia of Garo Hills.

Homestead agroforestry system

A homestead or homegarden is an operational farm unit in which a number of tree species are raised along with livestock, poultry and/or fish; mainly for the purpose of satisfying the farmers' basic needs. This farming is traditional in the Himalayan region. In a home garden multiple crops are present in a multi-tier canopy configuration. The leaf canopies of the components are arranged in such a way that they occupy different vertical layers with the tallest components having foliage tolerant to strong light and high evaporation demand and the shorter components having foliage requiring or tolerating shade and high humidity.

In Hamirpur and Kangra districts of Himachal Pradesh the homestead is constituted of Fodder trees i.e. Celtis australis (Khirak), Bahaunia variegata (Kachnar), Grewia optiva (Beul) in the upper story. The middle storey is constituted of bushes like Adatoda vasica, Vitex negundo, lemon and Galgal as fruit trees. During the rainy season cucurbits (vines) are grown along with Colocacia, turmeric in the field and (winter) vegetables during the winter season.

In Meghalayan homestead pisciculture is the common practice. Fishes are generally reared in a dugout ponds either in a comer or in the centre of the home garden, so that run off can be collected in it. In the low lying or plain parts paddy is generally grown. Important timber trees are Pinus kesia (Khasipine) Alnus nepalensis (Utis) Schima wallichii (chillowane) etc. are grown in the homestead for their requirement. In the lower storey guava, banana and vegetables are grown for domestic consumption. As per the study conducted by the ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Shillong; in a dugout pond of 32m × 15 m 2.2 m size there was a production of 250 kg fishes in one season during the year 1990.

However, wide variations in the intensity of tree cropping are found among homegardens in different locations. This can generally be attributed to the differences in socio-economic conditions of the households and their responses to externally determined changes particularly to price of the inputs and products, dependence on land and tenurial conditions among others.

Plantation crop combination

Plantation crops play a major role in national economics because they generate value added goods for the international market. The important plantation crops of the Himalayan region is tea. Traditionally, tea is grown on waste and marginal lands either in monoculture or in association with indigenous forest tree species. In Himachal Pradesh tea gardens in Kangra Valley are managed under the canopy of Albizia chinensis spp. which not only nurse the tea plants by fixing the atmospheric nitrogen in its roots but also provides shade for the development and maintenance of new tenders. The leaf litters of Albizia trees also add nutrients to the soil. Similarly in Assam and West Bengal the tree gardens are managed under Alnus nepalensis (Utis).

Large cardamom based agroforestry system

Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) a traditional plantation crop is grown in an old typical agroforestry system. It is adapted to humid and shady environment and requires moist soil with good organic content. In natural forests it is raised in association with Alnus nepalensis (Utis), a shade tree adjoining to small perennial streams (Thoras). This helps to spread water seepage through the soil during most part of the year. Alnus nepalensis, fast growing tree, not only produces fuel wood and timber but also fixes atmosphere nitrogen and enriches the soil by adding litter which in turn benefits the large cardamom. It also serves as a catch crop; attracting leaf feeding insect-pests to itself thereby protecting the large cardamom crop. This silvi-horticultural system is very successfully practiced in Sikkim since over a century. The area reported under large cardamom is about 14, 000 ha in Sikkim and the acreage is expected to increase phenomenally with the aid and assistance of the Cardamom Board established in Sikkim recently. In Joginder Nagar, distt. Mandi (HP), cultivation of large cardamom is picking up under Celtis australis, Ficus spp., Alnus spp. etc. near the perennial streams or nalahs.

Bamboo groves as a component of agriculture holdings (Agri-silviculture)

In Sikkim agriculture is well established as compared to other northeastern hill states. The farmer in Sikkim, by and large, adopts a mixed farming system. In all agricultural holdings along the streams and irrigation/drainage channels cultivation of bamboo (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and D. sikkimensis is common place (Fig. 3.5a). Bamboo’s are extensively used in building small farm houses, goat sheds, piggery enclosures, small baskets and string making (Fig. 3.5b). Large bamboo pipes are used as water conveyers in the farm irrigation/drainage system. Bamboo leaves serve as an excellent winter fodder for goat. Bamboo stumps/culms also protect the water channel from erosion. This system is limited only to he high rainfall areas or where the sufficient water is available to grow bamboo. A similar practice is also found in the Palampur area of Himachal Pradesh as well as in other northeastern states.

Fig. 3.5a Bamboo groves

Fig. 3.5b Bamboo house roof

Multipurpose trees on the crop land

It is a common practice in the western Himalayan region to cultivate wheat, peas, potato, cauliflower, mustard etc. during winter and maize, tomato, chillies etc. during the summer season either in monoculture or mixed on the permanent terraces prepared across the hill slopes. Fodder, fuel and timber trees viz. Grewia optiva (buel), Celtis australis (Khirak), Bauhinia variegata (Kachnar), Albizzia chinensis (Ohi), Toona ciliata (Toon), Morus alba (Toot), Ulmus laviegata (meryano), etc. are deliberately left or grown on the bunds of terraces. This type of practice i.e. agrisivicultural system is prevalent in sub-montane and mid hills sub-humid zone of Himachal Pradesh (Fig. 3.6).

Fig. 3.6 Agroforestry: combination of trees and crops

Similarly in the Agri-horticultural system which is predominantly followed in the mid hill-sub humid and high hill-temperate wet zones fruit trees are grown on terrace bunds along with agriculture crops since fuel and fodder are readily available from other sources. Agricultural crops like peas, cabbage, colocacia, turmeric and pulses are generally grown in the inter-spaces of horticultural trees such as Malus domestica (apple) Prunus domestica (plum), P. armeniaca (apricot) P. persica (peach), P. deueis (almond) and Pyrus communis (pear) Fig. 3.7. Tree are uniformly spaced in the field and average density of trees is generally 5 per 100 m². In some cases fuel or fodder/timber trees are also retained on the field bunds and managed under agri-horti-silvicultural system. Besides providing fruits/fuelwood/fodder trees grown along bunds also restrict/.check erosion.

Fig. 3.7 Relay farming in which multi-purpose trees are grown in combination with food crops

Private and community fodder wood blocks

Fodder tree forests in the vicinity of villages, be they on forest land, community land or private land are jointly managed by the managers to meet their fodder need for cattle during lean period i.e. winter season. In the mid and high hills of Himalayas Quercus spps. (Oaks) forests are jointly managed and protected for the same whereas in the foot hills or sub-mountainous region other broad leaved trees i.e. Grewia optiva (Buel), Celtis australis (Khirak), Bauhinia variegata (Kachnar), Albizia chinensis (Oei) etc. are managed so as to meet fodder and fuel requirements (Fig. 3.8).

Fig. 3.8 Lopped and unlopped tree for fodder and fuel

Seabuckthorn: Potential resource

Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) an ecologically viable and ethnobotanically sustainable food crop, belonging to family Elaegnaceae, is one of the few potential resources of high mountain areas which has been reported to offer hope to give multiple benefits to poor mountain man (Fig. 3.9a, b & c).

Seabuckthorn, (an indigenous plant which has survived under harsh climatic conditions such as average rainfall 350-1200 mm, average temperature in the range of 10-15°C and sometimes going below -40° to -50°C), is one such specie which has immense potential for satisfying all requirements. Seabuckthorn is widely distributed along high hills, river beds, valleys and along dry mountain slopes of this region both as healthy dense stands as well as in scattered gregarious dense patches in an altitudinal range of 700 in to as high as 5500 m and above.

Fig. 3.9a Seabuckthorn forest

Fig. 3.9b Seabuckthorn fruits

The people in high mountainous areas have been using seabuckthorn fruits for curing several ailments, including skin tumor diseases, digestive disorders and respiratory ailments, foot and mouth disease in cattle, besides using it extensively in agroforestry practices, though the farming community did not know of its exact potential. Seabuckthorn has also been a major source of fuelwood to local inhabitants who face scarcity of other sources of energy. Major traditional uses of Seabuckthorn in high mountainous cold and dry zone of Himachal Pradesh are fuelwood, fodder for goats and cattle (nutritious forage), fencing to protect fruit trees/nurseries/orchards, maintenance of traditional irrigation channel besides soil conservation, improving fertility/quality timber, useful for newly opened areas and subsidiary food items, medicinal products and alcoholic preparations.

Fig. 3.9c Nitrogen fixing nodules of seabuckthorn

In Himachal Pradesh major gene pool areas have been identified at Spiti valley, Lahaul and Kinnaur, for 4 species and 9 subspecies of genus Hippophae reported from different parts of the world.

The introduction, promotion and development of seabuckthorn in this area seems meaningful and will not only help in vegetation rehabilitation, but also in ecological sustenance and economic gains to local farmers of the cold and dry mountain area.

(introduction...)

The technologies for increased productivity in respect of animal husbandry include characteristics of migratory grazing by shepherds, health care, veterinary prescriptions and optimisation of animal breeding for milk and draught power. Some of the important ITK systems prevailing in the mountainous regions are summarised here under:

Migration of flocks of sheep and goats

In Bharmour and Lahaul; at the onset of winter (October/November), flocks of sheep and goat migrate to Kangra valley and Pathankot thereby avoiding fodder scarcity. During early April, folks return to their respective villages so as to manure fields, during the early growing season. Thereafter, malundi or shepherds gather the village stock for summer grazing in trakar/pastures situated on dhars/high mountain peaks. As summer approaches the stock migrates to still higher altitudes. At the end of the growing season, (September/October), when winter returns, sheep and goats are brought back to the lower ranges from the high altitude areas, following traditional routes.

The age old practice of manuring fields during October in the lower ranges is still practised. The landlords not only extend their complete cooperation and hospitality to the shepherds, but even provide them with food and other items in addition to some cash payment for manuring their fields through night droppings.

This grazing practice sustains the grazing pressure. It also enhances the nutrient recycling in these areas to a great extent. Fertilization of fields during the to and for movement of livestock enhances crop productivity at low economic cost.

Additionally, sale of crude wool yields substantial economic returns.

Migration of sheep/goats from Kinnaur to Dehra Dun commences at the latest by October end with the downward march of goats and sheep from the Pabo (high pastures) where they had been housed in temporary structures during summer. (These temporary structures often destroyed due to severe climatic conditions such as heavy snow and have to be re-constructed each year). The first halt is in the Rango (also called Kanda, is the highest point where cultivable lands are found above the village), for a few days the flocks are housed in these semi-permanent structures. Subsequently, they travel to the village/Shennang (cultivable lands below the village) - again stay there for a few days and then proceed towards the plains. Homeward migration starts around March end/early April, the same route is followed, albeit in the reverse order. The halt at each "station" allows FYM needs to be met and tile shortage is made good by Kimze (cattle etc.) which are not allowed to migrate but stay in the village/Rango/Shennang. Kimze are retained to meet social, religious, and ritual obligations, besides providing FYM. The people of the area have a well organized system of marking their cattle, generally on the external in the shape of a simple "V" or "U" shaped cut or round or square cut or a combination of two or more of these markings for purpose of easy identification.

For shearing, (twice in a year), special scissors are used. Shepherds carry modem drugs with them, and are competent enough to administer drugs through injection to diseased animals. A herd of sheep and goats is always accompanied by one or two gaddi dogs. Cereals and pulses which were earlier imported into the district are now being cultivated in the Kandas.

The obvious advantage of this practice is that sheep and goats constitute pastoral wealth and as such yield economic/remuneration’s. Further, pastoral life is an ecological adaptation in an area where land holdings being small, conventional agriculture is not viable.

Traditional management practices adopted by Gaddi Shepherds

The indigenous resource management found in Bharmour/Pangi involving very limited external inputs, developed by gaddi shepherds in difficult and isolated hilly terrain, is an example in itself. This resource use is still in vogue, in the areas ranging from alpine pastures down to the foothills, and has evolved over generations under to meet the fodder requirements. This agro-pastoral resource use/adaptation is an example of sustenance and sustainability.

Some techniques that have been perfected by the gaddis may be summarised as:

* Crossing high passes without any forecasting device and the timely return for agricultural operations

* The penning practice for securing grazing facilities and support (food etc.) from other cultivators, involves exchange rate negotiation. Similarly, those villagers who own relatively smaller number of sheep/goats hand over their animals to 'puhals' for grazing them nominal charges after due negotiations and duties are shared.

* Their dedication emanates from their religious and cultural orientation centered around Lord Shiva. Their strong engrained attachment to different deities and Lord Shiva helps them face all risks and challenges which are an integral part of the Gaddi lifestyle. Sacrifice of goats is still practised.

* Gaddi rituals and customs to a great extent have also been influenced by sheep/goats. They refer to their flocks as 'dhan' which is a synonym of wealth.

* Isolation for a considerable part of the year, has led them to develop their own system of medicine for curing common ailments.

* Isolation, prevalence of small terrace lands, single growing season, requirement of low technological and other input, high nutritional value and easy storage, dictates that cultivation of coarse cereals - millets (mostly by females) be undertaken. The elderly and a few youngsters occupy themselves with wool weaving especially during winter.

* Gaddies now construct houses at two places viz. one in high altitude areas (Bharmour area) and the other in the low altitude areas (i.e. Palampur, Nurpur, Baijnath, Kangra and other nearby areas). They migrate to the foot hills during winters with family and flock, and cultivate lands there and return to the upper areas during summer.

* In West Himalayan cold deserts it is a usual practice to protect small growing trees and tree trunks against foraging by animals, by wrapping gunny bags or small tin sheets around them. This is found useful because such protection prevents tree mortality since goats chew tree bark for tiding over fodder shortages, specially during the winter months.

* Gaddi sheep are best suited to the challenges and adventures posed by the system. They can walk continuously for miles together, traverse difficult terrain and can pass snow peaks without any significant damage. They are used as 'beasts of burden' in trade and are employed for carrying loads to difficult and inaccessible areas.

* Gaddi dogs (sheep dogs), are reputed for their bravery as watch dogs. They continuously move with the flock acting as an effective measure against theft and attack of predators, they also provide companionship.

* The strong bondage between the members of the Gaddi tribe is unique, since they have to depend on each other for survival

Their adaptation to the hardships and diversity of the migratorial grazing system brings into focus the inherent sustainability element. Emerging changes, no doubt, are exerting great pressure, but proper management mechanism will help in the sustainable functioning of the system which enjoys the advantages of inherent soundness and emotional attachments.

Grazing in higher reaches for Pashmina Wool

Pashmina goat rearing is specific to Ladakh and the north-west upper Himalayas. These animals are large usually and hardy with white fleece though grey and brown animals are not uncommon. They are generally used as pack animals (Fig. 4.1). The body of these goats is covered with silky hair about 10-12 cm long, beneath which is a fur like under-coat of great fineness (fibre diameter is about 14 microns) and warmth, called Pashmina, which is used to make famous Kashmir Shawls. The average yield of pashmina is around 200-400 g per animal per year.

In the temperate Himalayan Zone, flocks of pashmina goats (100-500) are taken up to the alpine pastures with sheep. Goats and sheep are generally grazed together and they move to alpine pastures in April and start their descent in September and are camped in valleys from November till their return to alpine pastures. Good pasture runs in deep gorges and severely cold nallahas in the higher reaches are specifically used for grazing pashmina goats. This comparative advantage embodies significant economic potential. The goats need cellulose which they obtain form grass, hay, silage, straw or leaves and cereal mixtures provide the mineral and vitamin supplement. The per unit requirement of protein and carbohydrates for metabolism in goats is higher than in cows. The goats commonly consume 6-10 per cent of the body weight in dry matter compared with 2.5-3.0 per cent for cattle and sheep. Most pastures in the higher reaches are of temperate alpine type. The selection of deep gorges and nallahs near glacial points by goats is specifically due to the availability of more nutritious material for grazing and browsing thereby ensuring pashmina production of good quality and quantity.

Although it supports a major cottage industry in the Kashmir valley, little is known about this goat. Information with regard to available genetic variability in this species is limited.

Fig. 4.1 Pashmina goat grazing in higher reaches

Traditional methods of animal treatment herbal treatment

Local methods for treating animal diseases have been in use since long. These measures are quite effective and are still in use. Few of these specific to Lahaul valley are:

1. Long grasses found in fields are boiled and are fed to animals with stomach ailments.

2. A bottle of sarson (mustard) oil is fed to animal for stomach ailments

3. Bark of beli tree is wrapped around the injured portion of animals for speedy recovery

4. Wool shedding in sheep is overcome by massaging them with a mixture of sulphur and sarson (mustard) oil

5. Khurda disease (insect attack on sheep feet) is cured by wrapping crushed leaves of karnu tree around the infected feet after washing them with luke warm water

6. A hot soup of zira (Cumin) and garlic is fed to animals affected by fever and cold

7. Garlands of fresh garlic are hung around the neck of cows with stomach problems for effective treatment

8. Application of human saliva to the suffering eye (s) is a most effective treatment for eye sores.

9. Burning grass (Jawanlari) along with black cloth and mixing the ash with oil is fed to cows afflicted by dysentery. This grass is dried and stored for winter months.

10. Sanctified soil of terminatorium is sprinkled over a cow afflicted by stomach pain. A cap of any person is then beaten against the body of the cow. A designated person usually sanctifies the soil before sprinkling. If such a person is not available in the village, an expert is invited from another village.

These indigenous methods of treating common ailments are claimed to be highly effective. These methods have the advantage of utilizing locally available materials which have medicinal properties. For example bark of belly tree or crushed leaves of karnu tree have a bitter taste, but have antiseptic properties and are fly repellents and thus help in speedy healing of the injured portion.

Sarson (mustard) oil is a source of energy and fat soluble vitamins, it removes constipation and is thus it is recommended in times of stomach ailments. A mixture of sulphur and sarson (mustard) oil helps in the prevention and control of skin diseases and provides nutrition to the wool fiber and thus overcomes problem of wool shedding in sheep. A hot soup made of zira and garlic is analgesic and antipyretic in nature, it improves digestion and thus protects body from common cold. Garlands of fresh garlic, due to their peculiar odour, stimulate the eructation reflex and thus treat stomach ailments.

Specific to Ladakh, a locally available shrub called capsion (stem of 20-25 cm dia) is fed to sheep along with its bark. It is claimed to enhance wool production. The capsion wood may be a rich source of sulphur containing amino acids and is thus good for improving the yield and quality of wool

In Kinnaur about 200 ml sarson or wild apricot oil is fed to cattle when they have a swollen abdomen condition. The germicidal properties of the oil help solve the problem.

Locally developed treatments of animals which are claimed to be highly effective, however, lack scientific investigations and thus require further experimentation and critical appraisal/analysis for the broad base application of this indigenous knowledge. This lack of scientific temper is a serious limitation.

Ethnopharmaceutical care of cattle

For the indisposition of cattle, a small cut in outer the portion of ear lobe (of the animal) is made for exudation of blood.

Such treatment is useful/advantageous because in high hills cold and fatigue are the main factors causing minor ailments. The availability of oil from fruits along with boiled water becomes a source of instant energy, minerals, vitamins and antiseptic media for curing the general diseases.

* The exudation of blood for is similar to an indigenous medicinal practice for curing certain human diseases more commonly known as the "Humoral Theory of Disease". The exudation of blood from the infected portion by making an incision helps in the removal of infection, since along with the poison etc. pathogens are also washed away.

To keep yak and dzos healthy, some management practices are followed by the local people viz. these animals are not allowed to drink water after heavy works. This is done by tieing their mouths during their return from fields. Similarly, during summer grazing when these animals return to doksas for recouping salt requirement, the animals are tied for 24 hours for checking their water urge. These practices are useful because the farmers claim that the intake of water after heavy exercise in the fields, leads to formation of tumors in the neck region. This may be due to some physiological disturbances and the sudden contraction and expansion of muscular tissue resulting from sudden changes in the body temperature caused by the intake of cold water. Further, the intake of cold water after heavy exercise also results in abdominal colic, which may sometimes be fatal It may also cause exposure.

* In summer months fodder consumption by yaks and dzos increases their urge for salt which ultimately leads to their desire to consume more water from frequently available glacial streams resulting in inflation of stomach and eventual death in many cases. Heavy water consumption immediately after salt intake leads to the loss of sodium and chloride ions because these two are not stored in the body. Locating salt licks in pastures should be encouraged.

As is evident, the fear of losing the animals has led to the development of these simple practices which require scientific explanation.

* Dysentery is a common ailment of animals. For treating dysentery, especially in Ladakh, a red hot iron is brought near the nose of the animals. It is claimed to be a most effective treatment against dysentery because it probably stimulates the defence mechanism i.e. involuntary contraction of gastrointestinal musculature which in turn may relieve constipation which is the major cause of dysentery. This probable explanation, however, needs to be ratified by veterinary research.

* Indigenous treatment for paralysis in Ladakh involves the use of a locally available white stone, called chaggar, which is first heated and then directly brought into contact with the head of the affected animal. Its advantage lies in its ability to induce nervous stimulation. Any nervous malfunction or any clotting in brain is sensitized by the hot stone, resulting in recovery from paralysis. The scientific explanation for this treatment however, is yet to be established.

Castration of male sheep may lead to a decrease in testosterone hormone (androgen production) which in turn leads to higher estrogen content which facilitates increased wool production.

In Lahaul and Kinnaur, cow urine is used as medicine. Its antiseptic properties shelp in curing small cuts and wounds. The exuvae (skin) of snakes is crushed with common salt and fed to the affected animals. While salt has medicinal value no information is available about the curative properties of the exuvae.

In Bilaspur and Mandi dried her leaves or kuljara (a type of vine) are fed to cattle to increase milk production.

Human saliva is antiseptic in nature and has epidermal growth factor which initiates healing process and thus is most effective for eye sores.

With a view to minimize mortality rates in Ladakh, Lahaul & Spiti, offspring birth is managed in such a way so that the birth takes place during April and May to ensure a higher survival rate. This is controlled either through isolation of sexes or through the covering of male genitalia during winters.

Severe winters and heavy snowfall cause heavy mortality. The relatively warm climate of April and May and optimum fodder in the pastures and the farms bring about minimum mortality.

'Changspass' use goat and yak hair to weave warm blankets in Ladakh and some other regions. Goat and yak hair are very warm and the blankets woven from them, help the shepherds in meeting the harsh climatic conditions.

* Deodar oil mixed with common salt is used to massage the diseased portion of the skin of goats in Kinnaur since both have medicinal value.

* Fresh leaves of Bauhinia species (Kachnar) are fed to buffaloes, because of their cooling effect.

Traditional animal treatment specific to mid hill region of Himachal Pradesh are explained below:

* It is a very common reproductive disorder in cattle and buffaloes in which uterus and vagina come out at the time of pastuarition. This problem can be cured by administering 250 g each of Micromeria biflora, Helimis lanceolatus and Trichoderma indica since a mixture of these herbs have antiseptic properties and cooling effect.

Bamboo leaves and bark are boiled with paddy husk and fed to cows for the expulsion of placenta (after birth).

* Feeding of Leucas lanata (Safeda) and bamboo leaves treats diarrhoea. Also feeding of 200 g of Cissampelos pareira (Batauva) in maize husk treats diarrhoea and dysentery

Involuntary contraction of gastrointestinal tract musculature, induced by these antidiarrhoeal herbs may relieve constipation which is a major cause of dysentery.

Sometimes due to intake of leguminous fodders with high moisture content, lot of gases are produced in the rumen and abdomen. This condition is known as Tympany/Rumen Bloat. Feeding of Murraya koenigii (Gandhala) and feeding of black pepper + kali jiri + gur + onion helps in the release of gases accumulated in the rumen.

* Methi (fenugreek) seeds are mixed with wheat flour and fed to buffaloes in view of the many medicinal uses of fenugreek. Such feeding helps in preventing buffalo from coming to heat.

Sustained livestock/animal husbandry

People inhabiting high altitude cold desert areas in the Ladakh region, through their traditional experiences have identified dzo/dzomo, yak/demo, and donkeys as a source of energy. The males viz. dzomo, yak and donkeys are the desert stalwarts helping the inhabitants in carrying out labour intensive work (ploughing, transportation, etc.), whereas female population - cow (local breed), dzo and demo are the chief milk producing animals. Since most of the livestock is less productive, steps are being taken to improve livestock through selection and cross breeding to enhance quality and quantity of their produce. The people inhabiting the Changthang area and its vicinity (4000-5500 m amsl), are proud owners of both nondescript and pashmina goats. The Changthang plateau, with high altitude grazing lands receiving scanty precipitation (<10 cm/yr.) is fed mostly by glacial melts and it sustains the heavy grazing pressure of the pashmina goats.

The Changpass - Changra goat owners, still practice nomadic grazing right from the Indus river belt to the highland pastures of Changthang region. The landless and the marginal farmers mostly rear the non-Changra and Angora cross goats on their marginal lands and village grazing areas. These are mostly reared in the village vicinity throughout the year. Livestock constitutes an important component of rural life as it forms the life line of the people, providing them with milk, meat and energy. Age old wisdom is managing this wealth.

The Kinnauras have developed a self-sustained system based on the resources available in the area which is still practised.

Sheep, goats, local cows, mules, donkeys and crosses of cow and yak (churu) are kept by the farmers in the district -primarily as a source of manure. Churu are preferred as they are well adapted to the area and their milk yield is also higher. Cow and goat milk is used in this region. Sheep and goats are a good source of meat and wool besides providing manure for the fields.

* Yak (Fig. 4.2) is an important animal of the cold desert region (e.g. Ladakh), for it provides milk, meat, hide and wool. Besides being a beast of burden it is also a draught animal. Yak skin is used as a loose robe by local people at high altitudes. Its long hair is made into fly whisks, ropes and is wooven into a rough cloth meant to cover tents. Bones, horns and hooves of the animal are used for manurial purpose.

Fig. 4.2 Yak: A multipurpose animal

In the west Himalayan cold deserts, as mentioned earlier, where the yak cannot travel, sheep and goats are employed for the transportation of food and other items of daily need.

The cross of yak and cow (churu) is not totally domesticated. In Spiti and upper Kinnaur, to make their use in ploughing, the noses are pierced and rings are put through them, a person walks ahead holding their nose rings to guide them in the desired direction.

The limitations of such animal husbandry practices are rooted in the adverse effects on grazing lands, from increasing livestock population and the introduction of high yielding breeds which require higher fodder intake and greater care.

Hay/dry grass storage in fields

A practice specific to Lahaul valley and also operational in other regions involves cutting, drying and subsequent storing of grass from the natural grasslands (ghasni) at considerable moisture level in the form of ghors. The grass is cut after the dew has evaporated and the swaths are left in the form of bundles (poola) to dry in the field itself by different methods so that its green colour and leaf characters are conserved. To achieve these characters it is dried under shade, along walls, fences, on trees or on roofs. This dry grass which is leafy is known as 'hay' and is used for feeding animals during lean periods i.e. winter and summer months. After drying the grass, it is stored either in a circular or elongated form as per the quantity of hay. The base is first constructed with stones arranged in a circle. The first layer consists of poor quality grass or thorny bushes. The bundles of grasses are then so arranged and placed that their weight completely falls on one another while maintaining the circular or elongated shape. In the case of circular shape, the width is more at the base which starts decreasing from the middle of the structure called 'talent' and ultimately it takes the shape of a circular pyramid. Earlier a cloth made from yak's hair called 'Thobi' was used to cover it, but now a layer of green thorny bushes or poor quality long grass is used as a cover along with wheat or raj mash straw. Stone or heavy wood logs are used for pressing and holding tile ghor in place.

This practice affords the advantage of maintaining the quality of grass by protecting it from snow and rain. Pressure of stones and wooden logs on the upper layers provides protection against strong winds. During winter months, the required quantity of grass is removed from the ghor periodically which remains completely dry and warm and is therefore relished by the livestock.

In most cases the grass is harvested when it is completely dry and devoid of leaves and is consequently poor both in quality and quantity.

In temperate zone, bundles of dry grass from the ghasni is carried by both men and women on their backs (Fig. 4.3) to the farm house in vicinity and is stored there in the form of a "Toli, which is a pyramid shaped structure (Figs. 4.4 and 4.5). Some times bundles (Poola) of long grass are hanged on different branches of trees for drying (Fig. 4.6a &b). In the region paddy and wheat straw is used for feeding the cattles in scarce winter season and straw is stored either in semicircular or conical heaps (Fig. 4.7).

Fig. 4.3 Farm women carrying hay/dry grass

Fig. 4.4 Preparing pyramid structure (Toli) for storage of dry grass/hay

Fig. 4.5 Toli: Storage hay/dry grass in a pyramid shape

Fig 4.6a Storing hay/dry grass on the tree for use in lean period

Fig. 4.6b Storage of lengthy grass on the tree for use as fodder

Fig. 4.7 Heaps of paddy and wheat straw for use as fodder

Traditional wool combing and spinning

Fig. 4.8 Wool combing device (Kangroo)

In temperate Himalayas, farmers use large sized shearer/scissor for shearing wool from goats and sheep. The sheared wool is combed and made smooth either with a special comber called Kangoo (Figs. 4.8 and 4.9) or with a special arrow like device called "Phanani" (Fig. 4.10). The combed wool is stored in a small bamboo basket (Kamoli; Fig. 4.11) in the form of a small pack (Fa, Fig. 4.12). These small woollen packs (Fa) are used for spinning a thread with a special spindle device known as Taklu (Fig. 4.13 and 4.14). These woollen threads are used for making woollen fabrics like blankets (Pattu double and single), long woollen cloth Lahanga/Pattee), dark black woollen cord (dora) and shawls which are generally woven by Gaddies on indigenous handlooms (Fig. 4.15).

* The Gaddies wear a typical dress which suits the physical and climatic requirements of the lifestyle and their terrain. The shepherds, during migration, keep new born lambs and kids under their chola to protect them against the severe climate. The approximate weight of the chola is 5-6 kgs.

Dora is the most important part of the dress of Gaddies and is used irrespective of the age or sex. It is tied round the waist over the chola which aids them in supporting the lower back while carrying heavy loads on the back It is also used as a pillow, especially while travelling.

Fig. 4 9 Combing the sheep wool with a device "Kangroo"

Fig. 4.10 Combing sheep wool with "Phanani"

Fig. 4.11 A bamboo basket (Kamoli) for storing wool

Fig. 4.13 A spindle - 'Takli'

Fig. 4.12 A woman spinning the wool for making woollen thread from combed wool pack (Fa)

Fig 4.14 Combing and spinning sheep wool

Fig. 4.15 A group of tribal men and women in their traditional wool dresses

(introduction...)

The art of crop production which is as old as civilization itself and its essential features have remained largely unchanged over the ages. Productivity in cold deserts in Himachal Pradesh, as elsewhere, is centered around crops and animal husbandry. People, through the ages, have developed need based and location specific indigenous technologies for enhancing productivity. The concept of quality seed is well known and agronomic practices are standardised for tiding up, the limited cropping period. Rotation of crops, particularly with legumes, is adopted for improving soil fertility. Sowing and harvesting schedules are steeped in cultural heritage. Adequate care is taken to protect crops from both pre-and post harvest losses.

Indigenous technologies with regard to mixed cropping, rotation of crops, agronomic practices, use of indigenous genetic seed sources, seed selection, harvesting, threshing, storage, etc., are summarised in the ensuing pages.

Prioritisation of crop sowing

In the West Himalayan Cold Deserts crop sowing in one season is linked with the ripening period of crops of the previous season. Wheat, barley, pea and buckwheat cultivation follow in sequence. In case of fragmented land holdings, sowing is prioritized according to altitudinal zonation. This helps to tide over the rather limited growing period by synchronising harvesting, threshing and storage before the onset of winter. In this manner scarcity of labour is also coped with effective and efficient crop management. The individual farmer is thus able to attend to his fragmented land holdingwhich are spaced over varying altitudes.

Mixed cropping

In the West Himalayan Cold Deserts cultivation of maize with millets, beans or pulses are the constituent crops in mixed cropping. In addition, leguminous pulses (mash and moong) are also cultivated on the available land, along the edges of plots. Mixed cropping affords the advantages of crop diversification along with value addition. It provides a shield against the event of particular crop damage. It also maintains soil fertility and productivity besides conserving soil.

Rotational farming

At the relatively lower altitudes, of the West Himalayan Cold Deserts, rotational farming is traditionally practised for enhanced production. Barley, pea and wheat constitute the common rotation. This practice balances soil fertility and avoids spread of diseases from one crop to another. Pea cultivation after barley crop fixes atmospheric nitrogen. Soil compactness induced by barley cultivation also serves as a check against wind erosion.

Crop rotation and double cropping

This practice is specific to remote locations of Lahaul (Miar nallah) in Himachal Pradesh. Rotation starts with barley in the first year, and buckwheat during the second year. The rotation sequence is governed by the quantity of available manure. Ordinarily one-third of the total holding is thoroughly manured during the year for barley cultivation. In the following year the soil retains a good deal of fertility for buckwheat for which no additional manure is added. In the third year the same field wheat is sown. The remaining two thirds of the holdings are similarly treated in succession. Barley requires heavy doses of organic manure for better crop harvest However, the organic content of the soil after the harvesting of barley is sufficient to raise a good produce of millets followed by wheat This helps to meet the challenges of limited availability of organic manure for successful management of soil fertility levels.

Crop rotation and practice of fallow lands

Under irrigated conditions in Lahaul valley, wherever paddy cultivation is possible, it alternates with wheat. On unirrigated fields, yielding one crop a year, wheat or barley rotates with maize and/or mash. However, the in cold reaches (irrespective of irrigation availability) where paddy cannot be grown and two regular crops are not practicable, cultivation of wheat or barley (or in some cases masur) is followed by a fallow period during winter. Millet and maize or buckwheat are planted in the following year. Usually maize is followed by wheat; buckwheat or mash is followed by wheat after maize. Where maize is not cultivated, wheat and barley crops are generally raised (on unirrigated fields) in the following spring season. This is replaced by buckwheat under irrigated situations.

This practice of crop rotation helps in maintaining soil productivity. Leguminous crops fix nitrogen. The growing of different crops viz., maize, wheat, barley and millets conserves soil due to their different root systems which extract nutrients from different layers of the soil. This also helps in crop diversification and control of any soil borne or crop residue carrying diseases/insect pests. The practice of keeping lands fallow preserves and restores soil fertility. The altitudinal gradation in land holdings is also harnessed through crop rotation.

Crop threshing employing animals

Animals, particularly dzos, are used for threshing crops by trampling, in the West Himalayan cold deserts. A large circle of packed earth (about 10 in diameter) forms the threshing floor. A number of animals are tied in a line to a central pole. Dzos once stirred, continuously circle the central pole for hours without showing any fatigue (Fig. 5.1a). Often there is a combination of animals, as many as twelve, with the dzos forming the inner circle while horses and donkeys circle along the outer edge. Threshing is accompanied by singing. To prevent the soiling of the grain by animal dung, a container is used for collecting the dung before it falls on the ground.

Fig. 5.1a Crop thrashing employing animals

Even in the lower Spiti areas animals (commonly chum) are used for the threshing of crops (wheat/barley). After harvesting of crops from August to September, the same are left to dry in a common courtyard (Khaliyan). After complete drying, it is spread in circular heap formed around a central pole. Two pairs of chum are used for trampling the dried crop. However, it is also observed in the Tod Valley that inorder to increase the weight of churu a weight of 30-40 kg (made of wooden and husk straw, sealed in gunny bags) is tied to it. Then the chum tramples the crop for one hour after which the crop is turned over so that it may be trampled upon completely. This process of turning the crop over, continues for 5-6 hours. After which the crushed material is collected and piled into a heap. The grain is then separated by air winnowing. The grain is subsequently stored in houses mainly for home consumption.

In Shimla districts of Himachal Pradesh crop thrashing by employing oxen and mule is done on a thrashing floor of about 5 mm diameter (Fig. 5.1b). This is further facilitated by thrashing with a 3 to 4 m long flexible green oak sticks.

Fig. 5.1b Crop thrashing in "khaliyan" made of stone

Thrashing by animals is preferred by the farmers as mechanical threshers are not available in these remote areas and are also costly. Additionally, the general feeling is that wheat straw/barley husk crushed by the mechanical thresher is not palatable to cattle stock because it is reduced to a fine texture. Also mechanical threshers crack more grains which is obviously not preferred by the farmers.

Use of yak and bullocks for ploughing

Yak and bullocks are commonly used for ploughing the crop fields. A lady guides the yak via a ropewhich is tied around its neck to follow a particular furrow and behind the yak, a male does the ploughing trough the plough tied to the yoke of the yak Fig. 5.2a).

Fig. 52a "Yaks" for ploughing

In temperate Himalayan, a pair of bullocks, tied with a common yoke and a plough in between, are used for ploughing. These bullocks are normally small sized and well suited to plough the narrow field strips of hill tract (Fig. 5.2b).

Fig. 5.2b Bullocks for ploughing

Furrow as an Indicator of Sown Field

After the seed has been sown and the field levelled with suhaga, a furrow is drawn in the middle of the field. This furrow acts as an indicator of sown field so as to keep it undisturbed from human and other animal activities (Fig. 5.3a & b).

Fig. 5.3a Laying plough furrow as sign of the sown field

Fig. 5.3b Laying plough furrow as sign of the sown field

Traditional germplasm of agricultural crops

Germplasm of food crops in the West Himalayan cold deserts, which is well acclimatized to the harsh, dry and cold climate, is saved and conserved year after year. The traditional germplasm used in Ladakh are listed in the following table:

Crops	Var. of crops	Tanslit	Meaning
Barley	Ne-nak (Lad, nak-nas)	-	Black-Barley
	Yang-ma	Gyong-ma	Early ripening
	Yang-Kar	Eyeing-dkar	White wealth
	Sermo	-	Yellow mother
	Tug-zur	Drug-zur	Six cornered
Wheat	To-Chen	Gro-chen	Big wheat
	To-chen	Gro-chund	Small wheat
Peas	Sren-mar	Sran-mar	-
Alfalfa	Buck-suk	-	-
Lucerne	(Lad-lol)	-	-
Mustard	Nyus-Kara	Yungs-dkar	-
Buck wheat	Ta-wo	Bro-wo	-

The reference to these varieties in folk songs reveals the sustainability of the local germplasm over the millennia. As revealed by studies of the Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and Technology; Research Station, Leh; some local varieties generate higher yields as compared to recommended varieties from the adjoining plains.

Uniform seed broadcasting and appropriate seed rate

Broadcasting is performed by girls in West Himalayan cold desert areas. One handful of seed is uniformly broadcast in three to four equal lots. The quantity of seeds thrown in each lot is determined by the distance of furrows made during ploughing. For verification of properly spaced broadcasting a handful of soil is picked up at random from any part of the field and if in each pick there are seven seeds it is indicative of proper broadcasting. Incidentally, this "seven seeds test" roughly coincides with scientifically recommended seed spacing.

In the Spiti region, for wheat/barley, an expert from the family casts the seeds with such precision that each pick will contain seven seeds, thus distributing a measured quantity of seeds. After casting the seeds ploughing is done using a local plough. This operation covers the seeds in soil up-to a depth equal to two times the diameter of the seed.

Broadcasting as practised, is advantageous when compared to line sowing since it reduces labour requirement.

Shangma Stone for Weed Control

In Changthan area of Ladakh, a light bluish local stone called Shangma is used for weed control because it seems to possess toxic properties. Pieces of stones are spread over a small heap of soil, in the middle of fields in the month of December. This soluble stone, when mildly irrigated, percolates into the field. The postponement of sowing by two weeks and this practice of allowing the stones to percolate into the field is done probably to regulate toxicity levels for crop management.

Rice dehusking

Rice dehusking is done by using a wooden pestle and mortar. Usually two ladies perform this function by using the pestle alternatively (Fig. 5.4).

Fig. 5.4 Traditional rice dehusking

Weeding, strengthening, thinning and gap filling in maize crop

The standing maize fields in Mandi area of Himachal Pradesh are ploughed, when the plants have attained a height of 15-30 cm for weed control. Ploughing strengthens the root system of the maize crop because loosening of soil enhances aeration and water infiltration. It also helps in thinning of densely cropped maize. The farmers also undertake gap filling during this operation. The whole process is known as Halod by the local farmers. Mash can also be sown during this operation.

Crushing of coriander seeds with shoe before sowing

Coriander seeds in Kinnaur, and other regions of Himachal Pradesh, are crushed by being trampled upon by leather shoes before sowing for better germination. While the exact use of this technique is a subject for research, it appears that this mechanical exercise exerts just the right pressure to break the hard testa without causing any injury to the seed itself, thereby facilitating germination.

Crop harvesting on slopy lands

In West Himalayan cold deserts, crop harvesting is affected by a sickle used in the upstream direction for maximizing biomass. Eight to ten plants held right near the base, are pushed forward and then cut. This method of crop harvesting from bottom to top ensures maximum harvest by reducing wastage through easy handling and consequently saving labour.

Seed selection for higher productivity

Again in West Himalayan cold deserts, seeds for future cultivation are collected from selected plots manifesting vigour, early maturity, disease resistance and higher productivity. After three to four years, the seed source is shifted to other villages without diluting the selection criteria. This practice of collecting seeds from different villages after every three to four years is a check against inbreeding which otherwise may induce low productivity.

Harnessing of Local Agro-climatic Conditions for Crop Management

Lahaul valley remains snow bound generally from December to April and as such no agricultural operations are possible. However, in the Pattan valley, where in one season, two crops are raised, one of barley and the other of buckwheat, snow is melted off the fields by covering it with earth for timely ploughing and sowing of seed. In the upper portions of the Chandra and the Bhaga valleys where the snow lasts longer than in the rest of, and the crops are liable to be damaged by early snowfall, ploughing and sowing operations are delayed. In the Pattan valley which has a somewhat longer summer on account of its slightly lower elevation, it is possible to sow barley at the end of March or in early April and harvest it in July. This is followed immediately by the sowing of buckwheat which ripens towards the end of September. Kuth is sown in November before snowfall and also during April. November sowing is, however, preferred as the seeds get more time for stratification which is essential for better germination. Harvesting commences by mid August. Thus farming operations are synchronized with agroclimatic conditions.

Distribution of organic manure

In Ladakh and in other regions after every seven steps taken by a woman, 20 to 25 kg of organic manure is scattered in the fields. This technique aims at uniform distribution of organic manure. It is reported that the quantity of manure spread is optimum for the plot of land falling in the range of seven steps taken by the woman.

Minimum tillage (mechanical and biological practices for soil management)

In the Lahaul area, wheat and barley are sown directly after a single ploughing. No second ploughing is undertaken. Sometimes, if in areas where upland paddy is sown when dry season prevails at the time of harvest, wheat is sown immediately after the harvest. No preparatory tillage is undertaken. Fields are left fallow in rotation. Soil management practices like minimum tillage/only one conventional tillage (ploughing), ensures least disturbance to the soil, thereby reducing soil loss through surface run-off. The nutrient losses are also curtailed. Consequently an improvement in the soil's physical properties e.g. water holding capacity, chemical properties like nutrient availability and microbial properties are affected, by leaving the fields fallow during rotation, there is a consequent improvement in soil fertility due to absence of erosion and crop nutrient uptake.

Dividing the fields into sub-plots

In Spiti and Kinnaur, fields are divided into smaller sub-plots for irrigation, otherwise land being sandy, water percolates immediately through one large plot. To stop water at each level sub-plots are made on sloping land. The same practice is also observed during vegetable cultivation in the Spiti valley.

Ploughing with the Indigenous (Desi) Plough

Use of the indigenous plough is still prevalent in the Spiti valley. During the month of April, farm yard manure is first spread uniformly by the women and then the fields are ploughed (Fig. 5.2a & b).

Local farmers confirm that the Desi plough does not bring the bottom soil to top and vice-versa, by virtue of this the top humus layer does not get turned under. This layer of humus also acts as mulch thereby optimizing the use of irrigation water.

Landuse for optimum resource management

In the Lahaul valley, wheat, barley, lintel etc. are sown in the post monsoon season while, millets, potato, maize and leguminous crops are sown in the monsoon season. Rotation is operationalised in such a way that no exhaustive crop is repeated in the following year. A two year rotation is thought to be necessary for optimum resource (land) use.

The cattle are grazed by one man who belongs to the lower caste. Food is provided to him by the villagers for the service rendered. Sheep are grazed together. This practice has the advantage of providing employment to one with no regular source of income and it is, at the same time, labour saving.

Extraction of fibre and seeds from Bhang (Cannabis)

Bhang (Cannabis) is cultivated in the Chhota/Bada Bhangal of Kangra district and Karsog area of Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh for the extraction of fibre and seeds. Its green leaves are used for extracting narcotics (Fig. 5.5a, b & c) which is very addictive and its cultivation is also illegal. After maturation the harvested crop is set aside to dry. After drying, the seeds are collected and the fibre is separated from the stems and branches. Its fibre, being stronger than jute, is used for making ropes of varying thickness. The rope making process is depicted in Figs. 5.6a, b & c. Besides its acknowledged strength, it is one of the cheapest materials for rope making.

Fig. 5.5a Narcotic extraction from Cannabis

Fig 5.5b Cannabis smoking

Fig. 5.5c Cannabis smoking

Fig. 5.6a Fibre extraction from Cannabis

Fig. 5.6b Rope making from Cannabis fibre

Fig. 5.6c Rope made of Cannabis fibre

ITK for vegetable cultivation

Root spreading for surface feeding in vegetable plantation

In Ladakh, a small wooden structure called the tokhre is used for digging the soil facilitating the horizontal spread of roots in cabbage and other vegetable crops thereby increasing production. This practice facilitates enhanced moisture/nutrient uptake along with the removal of weeds. The wooden structure protects roots from mechanical damage which could result from an iron implement.

Osmoconditioning of pea seeds

In Kinnaur, Spiti and higher reaches of Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, the garden pea is a significant commercial crop. The crop sown in the month of October-November, before it snows, shows relatively better/early germination when compared with seeds sown in the month of March/April. Sowing in winter allows adequate time for the physiological activities to occur within the seed, resulting in an early crop.

The early germination may also be attributed to a better hydrothermal regime during February-March for the crop sown in the month of October-November. The additional advantage is that the produce can be transported to the plains to secure excellent economic returns.

Cropping pattern

In the Spiti valley, in Kinnaur and also in the higher reaches of Shimla district monocropping pattern prevails. The crops like potatoes and peas are sown in the month of April and harvested during September to October. The poor fertility status of soils requires that such soils should not be overutilized.

Instead of sowing whole potato tubes, it is chopped into two to three pieces and each chopped piece must have an eye, to ensure seedling after germination (Fig. 5.7).

Fig. 5.7 Chopping of potato seed for sowing Home/kitchen garden

Garlic, dhoonu (wild onion) and coriander were sown in kitchen gardens in Lahaul and Spiti valley. A perennial wild plant locally known as jarga in Lahaul was also a permanent feature of the kitchen garden.

Leaves of garlic, dhoonu, coriander and jarga are used as spices.

Mahotar/dhingri/guchhi (mushroom)

Generally, during the rainy season, in Mandi and Kullu, prolific growth of dhingri is observed on termantoria. It is also observed that during lightening/thundering of clouds mahotar abounds on grasslands and guchhi (mushroom) sprouts in deodar forests. Guchhi (mushroom) besides being highly nutritive and tasty it fetches a handsome price. Collecting it from the wild requires trained eyes and considerable expertise.

ITK for horticultural crops

Localised green house conditions in grape cultivation

Grapes are cultivated in the Nubra valley by regulating the temperature of basins using local stone (called bricks), grasses, warm clothes, gunny bags or wooden baskets. Grapes are grown only in sunny niches. Pits are filled with locally found stone, grasses and soil. The white brick pieces help in warming the otherwise cool sandy soils in die basin. Grape vines are covered with warm clothes or gunny bags or wooden baskets to shield them against the cold and animals attacks, especially during the initial one to two years.

This method indicates the use of localized green house conditions for grape cultivation and subsequent fruit sweetening.

Apricot grafting

In the Nubra valley of Ladakh, apricot grafting (seedlings) is commonly practised. Scions (sweet types) are grafted over bitter forms of wild apricot. This job is carried out by three to four experts (free of charge) in a village. Local techniques are known as Kalam and Dambu. In Kalam half lamina along with the petiole is inserted into the peeled part of the stock and the removed bark is then used to secure the union. A two to three years old scion is preferred. Dambu is practiced on one year old seedlings. In this case a cut is made in the bark at the point of bud with a deliberate slow rotatory movement and the entire piece of cylindrical bark is removed much like the cap of a pen. It is then rewrapped and secured so that the petiole region of the scion is properly united with the stock. Protection of two to three vital veins in the petiole region is regarded as essential for the success of this graft.

The use of peeled off bark as a piece in Kalam and Dambu displays local wisdom for providing moisture to the grafted union. The use of the half leaf lamina is a check against possible damage to the union due to strong blowing wind, a common phenomenon in the region. Protection of specific veins indicates a knowledge of the nutritional linkage between scion and stock.

Enhancing soil fertility

Animal bones are hurried in the basin area of the plants. The animal bones improves soil fertility by adding phosphorus to soil.

Fruiting in apple

It is believed that if an old leather shoe is hung on the non-bearing apple tree, the tree starts fruiting.

Fruiting in walnut in Kinnaur

A hole is bored into the trunk of the walnut tree(s) up-to the hollow pith region. This results in oozing out of extra water present in this region and the tree starts bearing fruits because the water present in the pith retards the movement of nutrients from the roots to the upper region. Additionally, the branches of the non-bearing trees are pruned for bringing it to bear fruits.

(introduction...)

In recent years, the large scale application of pesticides, primarily insecticides, has made cultivation of some mountain crops and fruits difficult due to the harm brought to bear upon the bio-environment by large scale destruction of natural bio-enemies causing pest resurgence, development of resistance to pesticides and consequent secondary pest outbreaks. Perhaps the only solution to this problem at hand lies in the adoption of eco-friendly approaches which are not destructive to natural enemies but gradually remove sizeable proportions of pest populations and tend to keep their populations in check. Physical, (devices and procedures used to change physical environment of pest populations), and mechanical (mitigating pest populations by cultural practices) methods of pest control are the oldest of all such insect control methods. These are rooted in simple practices that man, as a farmer, has leant from his long and close association with pests. These aid him in reducing pest populations to low levels. These include both direct and/or indirect measures which may be preventive or corrective in nature but are essentially slow acting, often ecofriendly, cost effective and compatible with other methods of pest control. These characteristics make them amenable to blend better with integrated pest management practices (IPM) even though they do not bring about an immediate or drastic reduction in pest populations. Even the modem concept of pest control does not emphasize the outright eradication of pests but focuses on maintaining their populations at levels which do not cause economic losses. Some of the indigenous methods of IPM include:

Ploughing, hoeing and basin preparation

Cultural practices like ploughing, hoeing and basin preparation influence directly, the survival of soil inhabiting pests. These routine agricultural operations expose soil inhabiting insect, pests and other arthropods and nematodes to harsh weather and to natural predators. Insects are most vulnerable when in the pupal stage and most insect-pests pupate in the soil which furnishes a protective habitat. Birds like the king crow, the myna, the starling, etc. pick up the exposed pupae following these cultural operations. Some insects e.g. grasshoppers, crickets, mole-crickets and borers lay then-eggs in the upper layers of the soil. Their eggs are exposed during soil preparation and subsequently desiccate. Many insects like cutworms, grubs of the root borer and white grubs which feed on the root system of plants are also exposed to the vagaries of the elements during basin preparation and hoeing. Deep ploughing carried out during winter helps in reducing the overwintering populations of several pests.

The afore mentioned cultural operations are performed manually in the hills using locally made tools and implements discussed in chapter 9.

Beside dislodging the pests from their protective habitat and subjecting them to unfavorable conditions for survival, these scientifically tempered cultural practices also improve aeration of the soil and facilitate proper percolation of water into the soil.

However, the degree of success of these operations is related directly to the presence of natural predators in adequate numbers and the synchronization of these operations with the vulnerable stages of the pest's life cycle.

Hand picking of pests

Hand picking of pests and their destruction is another time tested method of pest control. Right from picking lice from human hair, clothes and even animals to the manual separation of pests from stored grain. This method can prove effective in curtailing pestilence on some crops. Insects which lay eggs in conspicuous and easily eliminated masses, e.g. tobacco caterpillar, gypsymoth, hairy caterpillar, sugarcane top borer, epilachna beetle, etc. can be easily eliminated. Early instar larvae of such insects often feed in congregations and later disperse on to the entire plant/tree and in the field, making control, at best, difficult.

Hand picking demands alertness, patience and keen observation. The collected pests are destroyed by immersing them in kerosinized water or by deep burying. Nocturnal insects responding positively to light, e.g. defoliating beetles, moths of Bihar, hairy caterpillar, tomato fruit borer, tobacco caterpillar, and cerambycid beetles etc. are collected, using light source or by trapping them in a light-trap and are subsequently destroyed.

However, it is a labour intensive and time consuming process. Knowledge of egg laying behaviour, location of eggs and larvae on infested crop is essential Hence, only a well trained person would prove effective.

Cow-dung and clay mixture

The practice of applying a thin paste made of cowdung, clay and cow urine, as a disinfectant, on the floor of mud (kutcha) houses in rural areas is an age old practice. Similarly, the application of a paste, of good consistency, to treat wounds and injured limbs of fruit trees has been in vogue, in villages, since long. Such a paste is also applied to pruned twigs/limbs.

A fine slurry is prepared by thorough mixing of the clay, cowdung and cow urine in a container. The paste is then applied manually using bare hands or a locally made brush.

Cowdung and cow urine possess complex degrading substances and may possess anti bacterial properties. Addition of clay results in better adhesion of other constituents to the treated surface. Sealing of wounds/cut prevents access of pathogens to the otherwise exposed surface. To some extent, the already present pathogen is also dealt by using the applied paste. Pruned ends of twigs and cuts are also favourable spots for the settlement and establishment of woolly (apple) aphid on apple trees. Covering such sites with the cowdung paste hastens healing and prevents aphid settlement. The paste is also used for the treatment of cankered limbs of the trees. The entire effected region is removed by a disinfected knife and is then covered with freshly prepared cowdung paste. As is evident, the application of the paste is a laborious procedure and proper sealing of the injured region is required. Sometimes, it does not prove to be an effective method for the treatment of canker.

Pruning of fruit trees

Pruning and training of fruit trees is an important practice performed during the dormant season to create a proper frame and provide symmetry to the tree and ensure proper and balanced growth in the ensuing season. Set procedures of pruning are followed by using secateurs, knives, pruning saw, etc. Some inconspicuous pests which hibernate as egg nymphs (e.g. some aphids, leaf hoppers, etc.) in limited numbers are automatically removed along with pruned branches/twigs thereby mitigating the severity of their attack in the next season. Further, pruning of old, damaged and weak portion of the tree encourages new growth which is healthier and stronger.

Thus, pruning aids pest control as it realeases overwintering population, improves general health of the tree and helps in maintaining a balanced foliage distribution with proper aeriation and sunlight penetration. Pruned plants usually have lesser pest infestation and do not easily succumb to pest attacks.

However, since pruning is both an art and a skill it demands that the pruner posses basic knowledge of overwintering behaviour and sites of pests to deliver maximum benefit from this mechanical method of pest control.

Use of wood ash on and around vegetable crops

Fruit wood is a major source of energy in the hills, consequently, wood ash is available in plenty. It is used to wash and clean utensils as well as clothes in many areas of Himachal Pradesh. It is a common practice to sprinkle wood ash on vegetable crops, especially growing in kitchen garden and to spread it around plants to ward off pests and to enhance nutrient status of the soil. To achieve this a thick layer of ash is spread on the soil around plants and it is also sprinkled on foliage to protect it against a variety of pests. This is because it is a source of phosphorus for plants and it also acts as a physical poison usually causing abrasion of epicuticular waxes and thus exposing pests to death through desiccation. It also interferes in the chemical signals emanating from the host plants thus obstructing the initial host location by pests. The treated foliage further becomes unpalatable for foliage feeders like cutworms, caterpillars, grasshoppers, etc. But since ash provides only temporary protection against pests, insecticides which have quick knock down effect have replaced the use of wood ash today.

Beating drums and using domestic dogs for combating the menace of birds and monkeys

Birds and monkeys are commonly found vertebrate pests which cause tremendous damage to some ripening crops and fruits. Most bird species are protected by law and monkeys can also not be killed due to religious sentiments. Alternately, the practice of driving them away by beating drums and using well trained dogs has been used since long. Locust-swarms are also warded off by the beating of drums. Today, one or two persons are engaged in these activities during periods of fruiting/crop maturity (along with one or two trained dogs Gaddi or Alsation). While the noise created by the beating of drums and barking of dogs scares birds and monkeys, it requires the employment of regular labourers for constant vigil (Also monkeys and birds may become use to these practices).

Kerosene oil for killing borers

Shoot and stem borers bore and riddle the twigs, branches and even the main trunk of fruit trees and push out faecal matter and frass through an exit hole (Fig. 6.1). Farmers have been using kerosene oil to kill these control tissue borers using a flexible metallic wire which is inserted through the hole made by the borer into the gallery to clean it. Then a small bung made of cloth soaked in kerosene oil is inserted into the hole and finally, it is plugged using a paste of cowdung and clay. The insertion of the metallic wire into the gallery causes physical injury to the larvae which are destroyed in the process. The oil vapour emanating gradually from the cloth bung fill the closed gallery, suffocating the pests and ultimately the larvae die. The death of the borer is indicated by unopened plugged hole. The drawback of this practice is that kerosene vapours act slowly and this treatment is not a sure and definite method to annihilate the borer. Farmers now prefer to use quick acting insecticides for assured results.

Fig. 6.1 Applying kerosine for insect borer

Use of Traditional Devices (Sling and Karban) for Scaring Birds and Stray Animals

In wet temperate Himalayan regions the Sling (Gulel) and the Karban are commonly used for scaring away birds and stray animal for the protection of crops such as maize, fruits and vegetable. For details see Figures 6.2 and 6.3.

Fig. 6.2 Sling and karban (Gulel) for scaring birds and stray animals

Fig. 63 Sling and karban for scaring stray animals

Bajagun Weed for Reducing Rat Menace

Common cowitch, Mucuna prurita, vernacularly known as Bajagun, is a leguminous herbaceous annual plant found throughout the plains of India. It also grows in the low lying areas of Himachal Pradesh. Its longitudinally ribbed turgid pods are covered with dense pale brown or grey stinging bristles (trichomas) which upon coming in contact with the skin cause discomfort and itching attributed to presence of a histanine liberating proteinase, mucunain. The effect persists for 3-5 minutes. These hair also contain serotonin which causes cutaneous pain besides itching. It was an old practice to powder leaves and pods of the plant and scatter it over men-ways and in the live burrows of the rats to drive them away from cultivated fields to reduce rat damage to the crop. After prolonged boiling and throwing away of the water, the pods are also reported to be used as food during famine. The easy availability of various effective rodenticides from the market have resulted in this practice gradually dying out.

Use of walnut and swetflag leaves against pests in stored grains

In rural areas of Himachal Pradesh, it is an old practice to use walnut leaves and leaves of a pond weed, commonly known as sweetflag, Acorus calamus as a protection for both grain and clothes against insect damage. To achieve protection a layer of leaves of walnut is spread over grain stored in gunny bags. Likewise, shade dried leaves of sweetflag are powdered and put over grain stored in gunny bags to protect it from damage due to stored grain pests.

Walnut leaves are astringents and the aqueous extract of fresh leaves possesses bactericidal action while mature leaves contain 9-11 per cent tannin. Tannins are known to act as feeding deterrents. Sweetflag leaves and rhizomes have many chemical ingredients including an essential oil, the oil of calamus, which primarily contains asarone.

Depending upon quantity of asarone (cis as well as trans), its effect on insects may be attractant, antifeedant, repellent, antigonadal or insecticidal. However, since the active principal is present only in meagre amounts (in the leaves) this treatment may not be able to afford protection for long periods.

Indigenous beekeeping practices

Rich indigenous knowledge of beekeeping in a variety of hives such as wall cavities, hollowed logs, skeps etc. served to preserve this heritage. These indigenous hives resemble closely the natural nesting sites of the native honey bee (Apis cerana). Swarms of feral populations of this bee descend to colonize these nests. These are manifestations of rural wisdom and some of them are explained here.

1. The Orchard hives are made of locally available materials viz., stones available on field; clay; chopped wheat straw; sarkanda grass; wood for making frames; string and strips of wood (Fig 6.4).

Fig. 6.4 Orchard hive

First, a platform of stones plastered with mud and measuring 70 cm × 70 cm × 50 cm (l × b × h) is made at a suitable site in the orchard/field. It is given a south-easterly aspect. The brood chamber of standard size for Apis cerana type hive is made on the platform from stones plastered with mud. An entrance hole of about 1.5 cm diameter is provided in one of the lengths, for the easy movement of bees. The top cover is made from sarkanda grass tied with string and supported with strips of wood. It is fashioned as a slopping roof to drain off water.

The low cost and easy to construct structure ensures better temperature regulation inside the hive, enhances its suitability to temperate regions and is helpful in successful overwintering. Appropriate location in the orchard renders it to be very useful for pollination of the target crop and all the scientific management practices can be taken up. Additionally, the structure affords protection from wild animals and is suitable for stationary beekeeping as it cannot be moved even within the orchard

2. Straw hives too, are made using locally available materials. These are: rice straw; locally made string for tying straw; strips of waste wood and wood for making frames (Fig. 6.5).

Fig. 6.5 Straw hive

The rice straw fibres are tied into 5 cm thick sheets with the help of strings and wooden strips. These sheets are cut to size and joined to form a brood chamber 310 mm × 320 mm × 204 mm (l × b × h) in accordance with the standard for Apis cerana frame hive. A hollow razed of bamboo is placed into one of the lengths to provide entrance to bees. A 5 cm thick crown/inner cover is similarly made from rice straw. The top cover is made in the form of a sloping roof from straw or sarkanda grass held in place with sticks. It is left projecting beyond the brood chamber to dram off water. Care has to be taken to ensure that no crevices are left. In addition, no loose straw should project into the brood chamber as it would interfere with bee activity.

This hive is suitable for temperate regions, as its management during peak winter is quite easy and winter-inner or outer packing material is not required. Internal temperature of the hive is also not quickly influenced by changes in environmental temperature. The bees therefore have to spend less energy in temperature regulation within the hive thereby lowering honey consumption and consequently making more honey available for harvesting. Further, overwintering is better as evidenced by larger area under the brood upon the onset of spring.

3. The wall hive is a cavity left in the wall when the house is under construction; it is located at a height of about 150 cm from the floor in kitchens, store rooms, living rooms and/or sheds; the wall hive has an entrance hole of about 2 cm diameter towards the outside; on the inside it is covered usually with a plant of wood plastered with mud. A swarm of Apis cerana descends naturally and settles in this hive making parallel combs. The wall hive is opened only to harvest the honey and never otherwise (Fig. 6.6a & b).

The Apis cerana bee's habit of nesting in natural dark and protected cavities makes the wall hive an ideal home for the swarming bees to descend and colonize. The location of the wall hive at a height in farm houses keeps it away from any disturbance due to activities of the farm's habitants. Human and animal habitation of the farm house, however, provides a relatively constant temperature. Since microclimate of the hive interior is not easily influenced by sudden outside changes, the bees have to spend less energy towards temperature regulation. Further the security offered by human habitation adds to the suitability of the wall hive for bees as they are protected against wild animals such as bears and pine martens.

Fig. 6.6a Wall hive (inside view)

Fig. 6.6b Wall hive

4. The log hive is a simple structure without any frame and separate chamber. Prepared by the hollowing out of a piece of tree trunk, closing both its ends and boring a small hole of suitable size along its length to serve as an entrance. Both horizontal and vertical log hives are in use. Length of horizontal log hives varies from 60-75 cm and the entrance hole which is 6 mm diameter or of pencil thickness is made in the centre. Open ends are closed with a piece of tin or wooden plank or stone mixed with cowdung and clay. 4-5 strips of old combs (3 cm apart) are fixed at each end before use. The vertical log hive is very similar to the horizontal one except that it is placed in an upright position on a piece of tin or flat stone with 5-6 entrances/holes above the base. The top closed end may have 8-10 holes of 1 cm diameter each, if the super box is to be used (Fig. 6.7a & b).

Though movable frames can not be used, as such the scientific management of colonies is not possible and only squeezed honey can be extracted. The advantages afforded by this low cost construction makes it amenable to shifting to orchards for pollination and short distance migration can also be taken up.

Fig. 6.7a Traditional log bee hive

Fig. 6.7b Traditional log hive

(introduction...)

As Upper Himalayas manifest diverse agroclimatic conditions varying from subtropical, wet temperate to dry temperate, cold desert areas, the different types of agricultural crops grown, vary from cereals, pulses, oil seeds, sugar cane, root crops, vegetables to subtropical fruits viz. mango, aonla, citrus fruits, litchi, grapes, etc. temperate fruits like apple, pear, apricot, peach etc. and nut crops like walnut, almond etc. The methods of handling, packaging, storage and preparation of different products and their subsequent consumption also varies with the wide agro-climatic diversity in the region. Most food products currently available in the market are essentially improvements/refinements of indigenous technical knowledge of postharvest management of food crops. However, there are still a number of traditional postharvest skills, which can be commercially exploited. Some traditional foods/products help to cure ailments and have been used as home remedies, while others are environment friendly and do not cause any health hazards despite their continuous use. This is an effort to document available information on postharvest operations of storage, curing and drying.

Curing of Cereals

This is a common practice in the lower elevations of the state and has a scientific basis.

i) The maize plant along with the stalk is harvested and tied into small bundles called 'Pahra'. All bundles from different fields are collected at one place and stacked in an upright position. Upright stacking of maize bundles is called 'Thua' or 'Zhumb'. After a period of one and half month, the maize cobs are separated individually from the husk (Fig. 7.1a).

Fig. 7.1a Maize curing by stacking (Thua or Zhumb)

Stacking of maize in the Zhumb for 30-45 days, ensures ripening and it also facilitates the easy separation of cobs from the husk. Curing results from heat and moisture equilization in the grains in the Zhumb. It has also been observed that initially sweet grains, upon complete drying and curing, become tasteless which is attributable to the conversion of sugars to starch, a common phenomenon also observed in pea and maize grains.

ii) Harvested paddy is tied into small bundles. Each bundle is called Pooli or Poola. After drying under open condition for 3-4 days, all bundles are stacked at one place and allowed to remain there for few days. Each stack is called a Kundli (Fig. 7.1b).

iii) Similarly, millet grains called Mandal or Sonk are allowed to ripen partially by stacking them in a heap and covering the heap with tarpoline. This procedure is locally termed Garr Dena.

The preparation of small bundles Pahra, Pooli or Poola help in easy handling and quick drying. Stacking bundles in heaps possibly aids heat and moisture regulation thereby resulting in uniform ripening. The creation of moist heat also leads to curing which eases the process of threshing the grains.

Fig. 7.1b Sun drying of paddy in stack (Kundli)

Curing of Chilgoza (Pinus gerardiana)

In Kinnaur, chilgoza seeds are separated from the cones by collecting the harvested cones at one place and covering them with chilgoza pine needles, leaves and soil. After 15-20 days, the chilgoza cons are cut-open using a sharp edged axe (Behla), with a gentle strike the seeds are easily separated. The procedure of covering harvested cones with pine needles, leaves and soil possibly helps in maintaining desired temperature and humidity inside the heap, which results in the curing of cones.

Cleaning of grains

i) Winnowing of grain and pulses is a common practice in every home in Himachal. It is performed using a container made of tin, called Stoop or Chhaj. The grains are placed in the Chhaj and slow winnowing leads to separation of dirt and husk from the grain. Almost all types of dry grain like wheat, maize, paddy, pulses etc. can be cleaned in this manner (Fig. 7.2).

Fig. 7.2 Winnowing of grains

ii) Bulk cleaning of grain is done using a container made up of bamboo sticks called Panaudi (Fig. 7.3). The dry grain, placed in the Panaudi, are allowed to fall from a height of about 4-5 ft in a thin vertical flow in the path of a cross wind. The lighter dirt particles and husk are blown away and the heavier grain is thus separated as it falls straight to the ground. The use of a fan (mechanical or electrical) greatly accelerates this process of cleaning. This method of cleaning is based on the differences in density of the materials to be separated. The use of modern air separators/cyclone separators for grain cleaning is based on this principle.

Fig. 7.3 Panaudi for cleaning grains as well for separating husk from grain

Packaging of food commodities

Fresh products

Different types of containers are used for packaging food commodities.

In lower areas of Himachal/containers made of bamboo sticks called Ddalh are used in the fields for packing grain, maize cobs, potato, ginger, turmeric etc. and also for carrying the material from the field to the house.

For packing clean grain, pulses and flour etc. the Ddalh is internally lined with cow dung. The Ddalh has a capacity to hold 25-30 kg material. A Similar container, small in size, is called Tokroo.

In the higher regions of the state, such containers are called Kiltas, however, the shape of this container is different from that of the Ddalh and has a greater storage capacity Fig. 9.10; Chapter 9).

The Ddalh is carried on the head while Kilta is carried on the back and is also provided with two large ropes meant for securing it onto the shoulders much like a bagspack. Raw materials carried in kiltas includes fresh apples, pears, potatoes etc. and even farm yard manure (FYM). Kiltas are internally lined with gunny bags to provide a cushion so as to prevent injury to the fresh fruit.

For transportation of culled apples, and vegetables like peas, beans, capsicum, potatoes, ginger etc. to distant places gunny bags are used as the packing material.

Packaging of perishables/delicate crop, like tomatoes, is accomplished in bamboo boxes called Tokra, which are then covered with thin gunny bags on the top (Fig. 9.11; Chapter 9).

The shape of the container Ddalh, Kilta or Tokra provides easy carriage of material on human head or back. The structure is easy to clean and dries soon even after washing it with water. The wide spread use of such containers was probably due to easy availability of bamboo and wood in these areas.

In some parts of Shimla district and Bharmour area of Chamba district, wooden boxes made up of very thick wood were used to pack and transport apples. The weight of the empty wooden boxes ranges from 20 to 25 kg i.e. the empty weight was invariably more than that of apples, it carried in it. The box was made sturdy to enable its carriage on mule backs to distant distribution points/centres.

Packing of pickles

In lower parts of Himachal pickled mangoes, galgal, lime etc.) are packed in earthen pots. The earthen pots are sterilized using fumes generated from burning red chillies along with Asafoetida (Heeng) and a little mustard oil. The top of the container is covered with a lid made of wood.

The antimicrobial properties of fumes of red chillies, mustard oil and Asafoetida not only sterilize the containers and result in increasing shelf life of its contents but also has potential for preservation which serves as a replacement to inorganic chemicals. An excess use of inorganic chemicals may pose health problems.

Storage of food commodities

Food grains

Food grains like maize, wheat and paddy are stored in special structures made of bamboo called Peri or Peru (Fig. 7.4).

Fig. 7.4 'Peri' or 'Peru' for gram storage made of bamboo

Prior to use, these structures are plastered on the inside with a mixture of cow dung and clay. These containers are placed on the ground floor and grain is loaded into them from a hole made on the roof of the first floor called Baurh. To take out grains, as per need, a special opening is provided near the bottom of each Peri. Interestingly, these structures are invariably kept in a separate room called Overi and access to which is allowed only to very few persons.

The use of bamboo containers allows the free exchange of gases inside the grain and keeping containers on the ground floor ensures cool temperature for storage. Loading from top and unloading from bottom offers easy material handling. Keeping storage structures away from main living room protects grain from fire etc.

In some parts of Sirmour, Solan, Shimla and Kinnaur districts grain is stored in wooden structures known as Darauntha and are kept away from the main living rooms. Daraunthas made of deodar wood are preferred as this wood checks the entry of insects/larvae.

Wooden houses built away from living quarters check the entry of rodents etc. Windows with wire mesh, provide adequate ventilation. The size of the store house is proportional to the size of land holdings (Fig. 7.5a, b & c).

Fig. 7.5a Grain storage structure made of cedar wood (Darauntha)

Grain storage in earthen rooms: In some parts of Lahaul & Spiti, special earthen rooms are constructed for storing cereal crops immediately after harvest. Storage in such rooms also provides a cool temperature so essential for the storage of grain.

Fig. 7.5b Wooden structure for grain storage

Poor farmers in some parts of temperate Himalayas, have grain storage chambers made of bamboo. These are built out side in the safe vicinity of the farm house (Fig. 7.6).

Fig. 7.6 Traditional green storage chamber made of bamboo

The logic behind constructing these storage houses/rooms at some distance from the family units was to save the food grains from the hazards such as fire, which was a common feature in the early days, as the entire structure of living rooms was fabricated from wood.

Fig. 7.5c Inside-view

Use of neem leaves/turmeric/mustard oil in storage

The use of Neem as a pesticide is now well documented. Similarly Walnut, Bhera and Mint leaves also seem to possess certain antimicrobial or pesticidal properties, which help in grain storage. The antimicrobial substance in mustard is allyl isothidcyanate. The turmeric powder also appears to perform a similar function. Some of the uses to which these natural products are put are enlisted below:

Grain is mixed with leaves of Neem/Walnut/Bhera/Mint (Pudina) and then stored in bins.

For storing pulses, specially Urad, the grains are mixed with turmeric powder or smeared lightly with mustard oil and then sealed in air tight containers.

Storage of pulses after soaking in cow urine followed by drying is also practised in some parts of the Himachal.

However, the scientific basis for storing pulses after soaking them in cow urine is yet to be explained.

Storage of tuber crops

In the tribal belt as well as in some other parts of Himachal, at the on-set of winter, root crops like potato, ginger, turmeric, colocasia (arbi) etc. are stored in under ground pits and the top is covered with thatch and soil. These products are consumed up to the next summer.

Storage of cabbage heads, meant for seed crop in done, in under ground pits dug in the fields. This is a common practice in Kinnaur. Apart from other storage benefits, the crop is also protected from the hazards of snow.

In Mandi district, a thin layer of grass is spread at the base of the pit to serve as a cushion, prior to storage of the root crops, the top of the pit (up to 6") is covered with grass and soil and is raised slightly above ground level to prevent entry of rain water into the pit In some areas, the top of the pit is plastered with cow dung.

Storage of ginger in pits for seed crops is stall prevalent in Sirmour and some part of Solan and Bilaspur districts. The pits in these areas are known as Khatti (Fig. 7.7)

Fig 7.7 Storing of colocasia, ginger and zamikand in the underground pits ('Khatti').

These methods of storage provide cool conditions for storage of these commodities, ensuring freshness for prolonged use.

However, it has been observed recently that storage of ginger in pits (Khatties) leads to spoilage of almost the entire crop, which might be attributed to a build up of pathogenic inoculum due to long and continuous use of same pits for the same crops. Therefore, digging of new pits is recommended and lighting a fire inside the pit, prior to storage. This is done for creating hygienic conditions inside the pit.

Storage of fruit. crops

Citrus Fruits

In Mandi district, ripe galgal fruit (Citrus pseudolimon) is stored in pits dug in the fields. At the base, a layer of ash is spread and then the fruits are placed in alternate layers of ash and fruit. The top of the pit is covered with ash and soil. Ash seems to possess antifungal properties, which help in checking spoilage. Storing in cool pits enhances the shelf life of this citrus fruit (Fig. 7.8).

Fig. 7. 8 Storing of citrus fruits in underground pits

Another method of storing citrus fruit is the use of a pitcher (earthen pot). The citrus fruit are placed in wide mouthed pitchers and then the pitcher is placed in an underground pit. The top is covered with about a 6" thick layer of soil. Using this technique, citrus fruit can be stored for 25-30 days without any spoilage. This practice is in vogue in the Nurpur (Kangra) area of the State (Fig. 7.9a).

Fig. 7.9a Pitcher for citrus storage

Apple

The apples are stored in the tribal areas of Lahaul-Spiti and Kinnaur districts in the underground pits, prior to the onset of winter. Apples are packed into wooden boxes which are then placed in underground pits and the mouth of pits is covered with thatch and soil. In this way, the apples can be stored up to summer time without any appreciable loss in quality.

The method appears to be a modification of the pit storage procedure described earlier, since here the direct contact of fruit and soil in the pit is prevented. A pitcher or wooden box placed in a pit creates a cool store. The development of the zero energy cool chamber (ZECC) appears to have its genesis in this technology.

Banana

Banana fruit wrapped in grass/cloth is also ripened in soil pit and also enhances its storage period (Fig. 7.9b).

The shelf life of fruit and vegetables is also enhanced by wrapping them in moist gunny bags through the cooling effect generated by evaporation.

Fig. 7.9b Patting banana in pit for ripening

Storage of gur/shakkar

In Hamirpur, Una, Bilaspur, parts of Kangra and Paonta Valley of Sirmour districts of the state, it is a common practice to store gur/shakkar/jaggery in large earthen pots commonly called Rushans. These Rushans axe supported by jute cords to ease under their handling. The top cover is made up of wood, though occasionally, earthen covers are also used.

Another container for packing Shakkar, is made up of large sized leaves of the Torr tree. Each leaf is held in place by using small bamboo sticks. Each container has a capacity to store about 30-40 kg gur/shakkar. Such containers are called Purih or Purah. Such containers, besides being economical, are also completely biodegradable. The exchange of air/gases, permitted in them, helps in the complete drying and best storage of the product.

Storage of pumpkin

To prevent decay of pumpkin crop and to store it for prolonged periods cow dung is pasted around the stalk of each pumpkin. It is believed that this practice prevents decay and enhances shelf life. However, the true antimicrobial properties of cow dung are yet to be discovered.

Drying of Food Crops

Open sun drying of cereals, pukes, oil seed crops and fruit/vegetables is an age old practice used for storage of food grains for long periods throughout Himachal. However, the actual methods of drying, show marginal differences in different regions of the state (Fig. 7.10a).

Fig. 7.10a Sun drying of cereal crops

Wheat in Chhota Bhangal (Kangra)

Wheat matures in this area during the rainy season when drying of grain proves to be problematic. The wheat and maize cobs are dried using the indirect heat of the hearth (Chullah); fire. In these areas, residential houses consist of three storeys. The ground floor is meant for sheltering animals while the floor is the residential portion. Directly above the kitchen, there is a store house where freshly harvested wheat grains are stored. The heat from the Chullah below provides the required temperature to dry the wheat grains.

Maize cobs are also dried by keeping them on the rooftop where both kitchen heat and sun facilitate the drying process (Fig. 7.10b).

Fig. 7.10b Sun and kitchen heat drying of maize cobs on root-top

The development of the kiln dryer for drying hops in Lahaul Valley and other food crops seems to have its origin from these practices.

Drying of cereal/pulses/oil seeds

As mentioned earlier, cereals (wheat, paddy), pulses (gram, wad, masoor, etc.) and oil seeds (sarson, lentil etc.) are harvested when they are just ripe and then kept in the open sun in tile form of small bundles called Pooli or Poola for drying. On complete drying, the grain is separated by beating the small bundles against a stone. Due to complete drying, the seeds/grain are easily separated from the husk. However, in present times, threshers and shellers have replaced this practice for wheat and maize respectively. Since completely dry grain is prone to shattering, harvesting crops at the ripe stage, prevents this loss during handling and harvesting.

Drying of fruit and vegetables

In the tribal areas and in some parts of Shim la, Sirmour, Kullu and Chamba districts of Himachal Pradesh, fruits such as the apricot, wild apricot (chuli), apple and local grapes (in Kinnaur) etc. are dried under the open sun by spreading them out on the roof tops. After 10-15 days of continuous drying, the fruit is collected and packed into gunny bags for subsequent use. Except for the uneven slicing of apples with iron sickles (Drati or Drat) no pretreatment is administered to any crop. Dried apricot is a commercial product of Kinnaur.

Open sun drying of vegetables like tomatoes, cabbage, turnip (stalk and leaves), mustard leaves is also practised in Kinnaur district and other adjoining areas. After making four incisions on the tomatoes (keeping the slices intact), slicing of turnip (stalks and leaves), cabbage and sarson leaves, these are placed in the open sun for drying. After 15-20 days of continuous drying, the dried products are collected and used during the lean season.

Drying of unripe mango slices

This is a common practice in the lower areas where in situ mango varieties are found in abundance. The mature but unripe mangoes are sliced and placed in bamboo baskets (changer or Chharolu) which are then kept in the open sun for drying. The dried product called Bukarian is stored in earthen pots and used as an acidulent.

Apricot-drying on the trees

In the high altitude dry areas e.g. Malling, Nako, Pooh, etc. in Kinnaur district, apricots are not harvested fresh but allowed to dry on the tree itself. Due to very low relative humidity, the apricots dry rather well on the tree. The dried product is of excellent quality, not obtained even after adopting modem techniques of drying (e.g. checking, sulphuring and mechanical dehydration). The apricots dried on the trees are approximately two to three times more expensive than sun dried apricots.

The prevalence of low temperature and dry weather conditions help first in the accumulation of sugar in the fruits and then in the subsequent drying of the fruit to develop a rich colour and sweetness in the product. This is one example of low temperature drying under natural conditions.

Drying of cucumber and Pumpkin seeds

The drying of cucumber seeds, using ash is practised in Mandi district of the state. In this method, seeds are mixed with wood ash and then placed on a plate, (Thali) in the open sun. The procedure (Fig. 7.11) is considered to aid fast drying of seeds since wood ash probably absorbs excess water from the seeds and prevents them from sticking together. The segregation of each seed leads to increase the surface area which results in faster drying.

Fig. 7.11 Sun drying of pumpkin seed

Drying and preservation of meat

In some parts of Shimla, Kinnaur, Lahaul and Spiti and Chamba districts, meat is dried for use during winters, by hanging strips of meat on stings tied across the room. Due to heavy snow, and the low temperature spoilage of the product is prevented. At low temperature and very low humidity, the meat dries very well and is hence preserved better for longer period.

In some places, salt is also sprinkled on the carcass prior to drying, which also assists in preservation.

In Nako and Malling areas of Kinnaur district, the meat is hung in the kitchen. The smoke from the hearth (Chullah) serves to smoke the meat, and hence preserves it.

In some parts of Mandi, Kullu and Chamba areas, meat is preserved by smearing it with a mixture of mustard oil and turmeric powder.

Low temperature checks the growth of micro-organisms. Reduction in water activity by drying and use of salt helps in preservation. Smoking is one of the oldest method of food preservation. Both mustard oil and turmeric powder are known to possess antimicrobial properties, and thus help in preserving meat.

Dried ginger (Sonth)

In Shillai and Renuka areas of Sirmour district, ginger is also sun dried. Fresh ginger upon soaking in water is rubbed against a gunny bag or placed in bamboo baskets to remove the peel. The coarsely peeled ginger is then dipped in lime solution followed by warmth for faster and better fermentation.

Distilled country liquor

Preparation of alcoholic beverages by distillation is common throughout the tribal belt of Himachal Pradesh. Government excise department too permits this practice, allowing each family to keep up to 24 bottles in this possession at any given time thereby acknowledging the socio-culture fabric of the region.

Fermentation

The liquid is prepared from fruits like local grapes (coloured and seeded), apricot, wild apricot (chuli), pear, apple, wild almond (bemi), etc. In higher reaches of Kinnaur, however, millet is the main ingredient. Country liquor is a strong alcoholic drink obtained after distillation of fermented musk.

Fruits like apple or pear are cut into coarse pieces, grapes, chuli and apricots are either hand washed or washed by feet and then placed into large tanks (concrete or wooden). In the agricultural lean period, dried fruits like apple slices, grapes and chuli are also used for this purpose. Generally wooden drums are preferred for fermentation as they maintain suitable temperatures. To obtain higher alcohol output, occasionally molasses are also added to the fermenting musk. Drums are then tightly sealed with wooden or heavy stone lids (Weather permitting, the fermentation continues for 15-20 days). The completion of fermentation is judged using different parameters like alcoholic or acetuous odour, small vapours appearing on the inside of the lid or non-sticky nature of the pulp, when pressed between the forefinger and the thumb. All these characteristics are indicative of complete fermentation.

In some places the fermenting vat or bottle is placed in a cow dung pit (Mahlash). Generation of heat during decomposition of cow dung in the pit provides required warmth for faster and better fermentation.

Distillation

The fermented musk is then distilled to obtain the liquor by different methods.

The fermented liquid is boiled in a vessel called as Baltoi. At the base of which a temporary stand is made under place a Container to collect distilled liquor. Upon heating, the fermented liquid boils, and its vapours are cooled by striking the top of the container (holding cold water), the condensed vapours drop into the container, meant for collecting the liquor (Fig. 7.12). Cold water is repeatedly replaced until the process is completed.

Fig. 7.12 Distillation of fermented musk for preparing country liquor ('Ghanti')

In this manner, recovery is comparatively low since some vapours also fall back into the boiling liquid. Moreover, there is no provision for complete separation of its methyl alcohol content.

In some places, this method has been further improved as under:

Herein, an empty ghee tin (canister 15 kg capacity) is made slightly rounded, and at its base, is placed a temporary stand on which a pot is placed for collecting the condensed vapours. The pot is attached to a rubber pipe to receive the liquor in bottles/plastic cans (Fig. 7.12). This has a higher efficiency and it also allows the separation of the initial drops of the liquor which contain high levels of methanol.

As a further improvement in the distillation process, the fermented musk is placed in a metallic pitcher which is covered with a (stone) slate with a hole at its centre for the passing out vapours. The slate is used ostensibly to avoid the overflow of the material as it boils. Another metallic pan with a hole is kept on the slate and is attached to a side pipe where condensed alcoholic vapours are collected. To cool the vapours, this container is housed in a bigger metal pan which is cooled by continuously running tap water. Two rubber pipes viz. inlet and outlet aid the circulation of cold water and the release of warm water. The pan is maintained in a tilted position, so that the inlet of the pipe is located higher than the outlet pipe. The bottom of the utensil is cooled, thus the alcoholic vapours condense on its lower surface. The condensed material runs out through the side pipe of the lower utensil from where it is collected into bottles or plastic cans (Fig. 7.13). Approximately, 12-14 bottles of alcohols are collected from 40 kg of fermented musk. However, by using 5-6 kg of molasses/gur in this musk, the yield increases to 18-19 bottles. Fuel wood is used for heating. All joints are secured using barley, phafra or wheat paste. In some places even dung paste is used for securing joints.

Fig. 7.13 'Ghanti' liquor distillation system provide with rubber pipe

The simplest method involves a rubber pipe being inserted through a hole in the slate lid, to collect the vapours. The vapours are cooled by maintaining a continuous flow of cold water from the tap. The condensed alcoholic vapours are received in the bottle (Fig. 7.14).

Fig. 7.14 Traditional method of country liquor distillation

Improved method of distilling country liquor

In some areas of Himachal the above stated methods have been further improved by replacing the water trough by rubber pipe, to collect vapours from the boiling fermented liquor. In this method an empty ghee tin i.e. 15 kg capacity canister, is used for boiling the fermented liquid by heating it on fire. On the top opening of the canister, a rubber pipe is inserted to receive the alcoholic vapours, the pipe is paired through a water trough to condense the vapours. The alcoholic product is then collected in glass bottles or plastic cans.

In order to increase the alcohol yield Gur is sometimes added. In the agricultural lean period, dried grapes, apple and chuli etc. are used for preparing the fermented musk (Fig 7.15).

Fig 7.15 Traditional continuous distillation method of country liquor

The product prepared from grapes is called Angoori. Chhang is prepared using Millets and Ghanti is prepared from any other source. During initial distillation, first 1-2 bottles of liquor are called Moon and contain the maximum amount of alcohol while last distillate contains comparatively lower amounts of alcohol and is called Rashi. Costwise, Angoori is the costliest, followed by Moori and least expensive is Rashi often only Rs. 10-20 per bottle (700 ml).

Due to extreme winters, the consumption of country liquor (ghanti) is extensive in the entire cold dessert regions for medicinal purposes. Besides social use the product is also used during rituals and religious occasions.

Traditional apple plucking

It is done by climbing an apple tree with putting by a small basket made, which is put around the neck of gunny bag cloth. This prevents the damage of fruits. Plucked apples, from the gunny bags are transferred to a bigger basket (Kilta) which is also provided with a rough cloth cushion. In this way, apples are carried to the store room for grading (Fig. 7.16).

Fig. 7.16 Traditional apple plucking

Steam cooking

A big special vessel made of brass is used for preparing steam cooked cake of maize or barley. This vessel is called Chalta in which at the bottom of the vessel water and rice straw is placed. Above this round cover, made from maize or barley flour is placed and cooked in steam (Fig. 7.17).

Fig 7 17 Vessel for steam cooking of cakes (Chalta)

(introduction...)

Weather is certainly the most important factor determining the success or the failure of agricultural enterprises. It manifests itself through its effects on soil, plant growth as well as on every phase of animal growth and development. A greater proportion of the total annual crop loss results from aberrant weather. Also crop and animal disease are greatly influenced by weather. In all, weather accounts for approximately three fourth of the annual loss in farm production both directly and indirectly.

However, the crop losses can be reduced substantially by affecting adjustments through timely and accurate weather forecasts. Such weather forcast support and also provides guidelines for long range or seasonal planning and selection of crops best suited to the anticipated climatic conditions.

Weather forecasts for agriculture can be grouped into short range forecast (up to 48 hours), medium range forecast (3-10 days) and long range forecast (one week to entire season). Each plays an important role in farm operations and planning of agricultural activities. Most important efforts since time immemorial have been on rain making and weather for casting. Some of the indigenous practices are recorded here.

History of indigenous rain making

From the food gathering stage to the last quarter of the twentieth century, man's need for water has been increasing. However, the unpredictable nature of rainfall has not changed. Adequate availability of water through rainfall has, therefore, always been the major worry of man, leaving him susceptible to any activity that could bring rain. Just as present day heads of government are concerned and incorporate plans for the adequate supply of water for their people, similarly primitive tribal chiefs were also responsible for bringing rain to their people. Like the politicians of today, the tribal chiefs, delegated the responsibility of rain making to someone else, obviously as a hedge against failure. If there was no rain, it was the luckless assistant who was punished rather than the chief.

The early rainmakers, fore-runners of the present day meteorologists, were perhaps among the most intelligent of the primitive men who had to guess the scientific reasons for the phenomenon of rain and the fact that these gentlemen often succeeded in duping their chiefs to preserve their own lives is in it self a tribute to their intelligence. Again, it was these very people who set the stage 'for scientific enquiry into the causes of weather and rainfall.

Magic and rain making

During the intermediate stage i.e. between magic and science, religion and pseudoscience gained importance in rain making. Initial attempts for making rain started with magic. At different times, in different countries, rain makers have performed strange ceremonies like invoking the spirits of the dead, mock ploughing, even hurling curses at the Gods.

The pioneer rain makers were magicians who used imitation, appeal, supplication and even intimidation as approaches to make rain. They sprinkled water on soil, hoping the heavens would do the same. They beat drums, used to imitating thunder, used firebrands to simulate lightening and blew mouthfuls of water into the air like rain. Women poured water on soil, hoping the heavens world do the same. Water was blown into the air through special pipes, and blood was spindled on the soil to bring rain. Bathing in rivers, even ploughing rivers was resorted to in attempts to bring rain. Frogs were hung from trees to induce the heavens to make it rain over them.

When imitation failed, magicians often turned to supplication. Children were hurried neck deep in the soil to cry for rain, shedding tears to imitate rain. Where supplication too failed, intimidation was resorted to. Magicians would run in various directions flailing at the sky with a stick or sword, commanding for it to rain. Even today, in many parts of the world rain making is practised though there are many variations to this weather magic.

Religion in rain making

It is difficult to mention the exact time when the rain makers turned from magic to the Gods. Imitative magic gave way to supplication, a sympathy inducing approach directed, not towards clouds and the heavens, but towards Gods representing these phenomena. During the earlier stages, tribal chiefs or appointed rain makers were regarded as the source of rain. This respect subsequently shifted to the dead. Thus supplications were first directed at the tomb of a departed ancestor. Men prayed for rain to the dead and then to the Gods. Praying for rain is firmly routed in Indian culture even today.

It was believed that prayer itself could bring rain. But as an insurance, non living gifts were presented to the rain God during the prayers.

In the temperate Himalayas, people sing the traditional song Singaitoo up to mid night during the prolonged hot dry summer. They then organise a feast (Havan) from the collections made, in honour of Khawaja God. People claim that in this way the rain Gods are appeased and within 2-3 days of the feast rainfall is assured. A similar type of feast (varisty Puja.) is organised by villagers collectively during summers in the event of a long dry spell in Punjab. All cry for rain and the children sing a song. The essence of the song is:

"When God listen to children's voices there is rainfall"

In the next stage of its evolution rain making was centered around the bestowing of gifts trough sacrificial offerings. Initially these were in the form of live human sacrifices, and subsequently involved animals. Intimidation was also a important tool in religious practice. In China, huge paper dragons, were part of religious festivals and when the rains failed, these dragons were angrily torn apart. In several European countries statues of saints were uprooted and made to stand on their heads when prayers before them failed to bring rain. As late as 1893, Italians, affected by long periods of drought, banished statues of saints from their country. On occasion the statues were chained and their wings were clipped off, when the rains failed. Among other religious attempts to change the weather, one prevalent in Europe was to erect bells and crosses to protect the vineyards. The bells were thought to prevent hails, lightening and windstorm. When the Gods failed to bring rain trough prayer or intimidation neighbors were approached. In Bengal when the end of the drought was not in sight, people threw filth on the homes of their neighbors who in turn abused them; this was considered auspicious for rainfall.

In the Shahpur district of Pakistan, people would throw a pot of filth on the threshold of a notorious old shrew of the area during a drought. This, not surprisingly, resulted in a fluent stream of foul language which accelerated the onset of rain.

Pseudo-science and rain making

When-magic and religion become a natural truth then it can be considered a pseudo-science or sometimes even science may be applicable to the natural truth. One of the observations of a natural truth was the occurrence of rainfall after the great battle was over.

The religious explanation behind this coincidence was that the Gods were offended by the carnage and had sent the rain to purge the land of blood. The materialistic answer for this coincidence was different. Rain was simply the condensation of the blood, sweat and tears of the warriors. There were other theories also. One was that noise might have caused the rain - the great inferno of blazing guns and screams produced the rain. All these theories, however, were later on demolished. Battles are fought generally in good weather in wet regions and when the battles are over, it was generally the time for the onset of rain. People observed that rain induces lightening and thunder rather than vice versa. An American argument in favour of smoke noise theory was the rainfall in the 4th of July and it was argued that fireworks did it. In fact this was, and is, the peak of the rainy season in the USA.

In 1880, a patent was issued in the USA for using balloons loaded with explosive for rain making because the explosion theory/belief held sway for a considerable time. Powdered lime was used to stop rain in certain areas and other chemicals were used to induce rain. In 1899, meteorologist Aitken discovered condensation nuclei particles to explain the phenomenon of condensation. So then these nuclei were added to induce rain.

The nuclei used was dust, if this did not work sulphuric acid was used which produced bubbles that flew into the air. The explanation putforth for this experimentation was that chemical action produced hydrogen which being lighter rose high in the atmosphere and in doing so created currents that carried moisture for condensation. In later years, however, the actual facts discredited this explanation or claim. To date there is no successful method of rain making, hence means of adjustment to the cycle of rain were and are indeed important.

ITK for weather prediction

Out of various the factors which control agricultural production, weather is the only factor over which man has no control and hence it has an overwhelming dominance over the success or failure of agricultural enterprise. It is an accepted fact that food production is inextricably linked with climate and weather. It is also reported that weather induced variability of food production is more than 10 per cent. This variability can be as high as 50 per cent of the normal production in respect of smaller areas situated in arid and semi-arid regions. In order to reduce risks of loss in food production due to the vagaries of weather, weather per se, should be taken into account as one of the major inputs in agricultural planning. That is why forecast of weather parameters play a vital role in agricultural production. It also aids in minimize crop losses to a considerable extent. Thus development and refinement of the art of weather prediction has been essential since time immemorial.

In present times we have many improved technologies for making weather forecasts as well as for their dissemination. Previously when there was no such technology available farmers based their prediction on many natural, cultural and social phenomena. Some of these are discussed below:

Visible spectrum around the sun and the moon

People predicted weather after observing the visible spectrum around the sun or moon. If the spectrum around the sun had a greater diameter than that around the moon, they predicted rainfall after a day or two.

Some people based their weather prediction on the nature of the solar halo, specifically: "if the spectrum around the sun has a larger diameter then rainfall is assured.

All the photometers are a luminous phenomenon produced by the reflection, refraction, diffraction or interference of light from the sun or moon. The visible spectrum of light around the sun or moon is called halo, or carona according to its distance from the sun or moon. If the distance is more then it is called the halo phenomenon, which is caused by a layer of thin veil of cirrus clouds i.e. non rain bearing clouds. But if the distance is less, it is called corona phenomena produced by somewhat dense clouds which may cause rainfall. The accuracy of this indigenous observation can be as high as 50 per cent

Cloud and wind direction

If there is an accumulation of clouds in the South-East direction in a layered form accompanied by winds blowing from the southern direction then it is claimed that there will be rainfall within a day or two.

Weather prediction through birds and other animals

Farmers also predict weather by observing closely the different activities of various birds, animals etc. The following are some indigenous beliefs:

- It is believed that on a hot summer day the cry of the bird called "Nialu" () for water brings rainfall

- During the rainy season farmers observe the "Matilari" bird (House swift) and they predict heavy rainfall if the bird flies high in the sky

- If the Maina () bird bathes in the water it indicates that there will be rainfall within one or two days

- During long hot days in summer if the cry of theapiha bird is heard then people believe that God will quench her thirst and there will be rainfall after one or two days.

- A group of sparrows frolicking in the sand indicates that there will be rainfall that day or the next day and if they are observed to be playing in water then it is believed that the weather will be dry for some days to come.

- If the "Jonks" (Leechs) are immobile/stationary at the water surface (Pond) then dry weather is predicted but if they move rapidly in the upward and downward direction in water then rainfall is predicted.

- If the "Tatihari" bird (Lapwing) lays her eggs on the higher portion of the field then heavy rainfall is predicted during the coming rainy season but if the eggs are laid in the lower portion of the field then a drought is predicted. These birds never construct a nest but lay their eggs on bare soil.

Further it is also believed that if a single egg is laid, then there will be rainfall only for one month out of four months of the rainy season. If two eggs are laid then rainfall will occur for two months and similarly four eggs indicate there will be rainfall during all the four months of the rainy season.

- If there is a swelling on the lower portion of the camel's legs then rainfall is predicted by the farmers. The swellings are probably caused due to higher relative humidity.

- If the "Tillbohara" (Dragon fly), which appears generally in the rainy season, are observed to swarm in a large group over a water surface (Pond) then dry weather is predicted but if they swarm over open dry lands or fields then early rainfall is predicted by the farmers.

- If the colour of the clouds is similar to the colour of the wings of the Titar bird (Partridge) i.e. grey or black-grey and strong eastern winds are also blowing then assured rainfall is predicted by the farmers. The clouds of a colour similar to that of the said bird are rain bearing clouds i.e. of cumulonimbus type.

- If centipedes emerge from their holes carrying their eggs in swarms in order to shift them to safer places (within the house) then farmers predict early rainfall The centipedes do this so as to avoid egg damage which can be caused by rain water.

- When spider nets are plentiful on grasses, sticks of tomato crop and on trench bean crop then it is estimated that the rainy season is over.

Social and cultural beliefs

Many cultural, social and religious beliefs and activities superstitious pertaining to the prediction of future weather prevail since generations. From time immemorial farmers have predicted the weather on the basis of these beliefs/activities. The following are some examples from the western Himalayana region.

- If the first 10-15 of the month "Jeth" (May-June) are very hot then good rainfall/monsoon is predicted during the ensuing rainy season. This results probably from the low pressure zone in north-west India that is generated due to the high temperatures.

- The Soolini Mela (Festival) is organised in Solan, during the month of June every year. People of this area firmly believe that rainfall will occur on the very day of the festival or one day before or day after the festival

- It is also believed, that when grey coloured clouds descend below the hill tops then they definitely cause rainfall.

- If the "Khejri" tree bears good fruit in a particular year then farmers predict good rainfall during the next rainy season and vice versa less rain is predicted in the event of a poor fruit crop.

- If the Chakkala-Belan, (rolling pin and board), used in the Kitchen, show moisture on them then within few days rainfall is expected.

- In villages elderly farmers usually carry a small bag for "Tambaku" (Tobacco) for Hukka (Smoking device). When this bag shows more moisture in the Tambakku then farmers predict rainfall within one or two days.

Some Folk-lore Regarding Weather Forecasting

The folk-lore of the popular poet Gag and his wife Bhahdari, who lived during the 17th century, regarding weather forecasting are still very popular in northern India. Some are given as under:

"When strong eastern winds blow continuously then it is estimated that the rainy season has come"

- When days are very hot and there is dew at night, then according to Gag, there are very limited chances of rainfall.

- When cloudy days are accompanied by clear nights and the eastern winds blow somewhat strongly, then according to Gag no rainfall is predicted. Thus there is accompanied by a shortage of water in ponds, rivers etc. Consequently clothes are washed using water from wells.

- When a rainbow is formed in the direction of Bengal then there will be rainfall, if not by the evening then definitely by next morning.

- During the rainy season, if a cloud appears on Friday and Saturday then rainfall is predicted either for Sunday or Monday.

(introduction...)

In the Upper Himalayas, varied topographic and agro-climatic conditions ranging from subtropical to cool temperatures permit the cultivation of a wide variety of crops and fruits. However, agriculture in general is handicapped due to steep and hilly terrain, hazards of climate, uneconomic scattered holdings comprising of shallow and stony soils. The tools and implements used are of a primitive nature throughout the Indian Himalayan range(s). Traditional farm tools and implements for self sustenance have been developed/modified through experience over generations to meet emerging socio-economic and farming challenges. The type of soils and topographic conditions largely influence the type, size and shape of particular tillage tools/implements. The following is a list of local tools/implements found in various regions of temperate Himalayas.

A brief discussion of the most commonly used indigenous implements are given in table 1.

Tillage implements

1. Plough: Tillage is the basic operation in farming. It is done to create favourable conditions for seed placement and plant growth. This is done mainly with a plough. A full history of the evolution of plough is not available. Farmers have been using plough since time immemorial. The primitive model might have been a crooked twig or a branch of a tree. The basic components of the plough are a shoe, a share, a body, a handle and a beam.

The shoe and body make one piece in the case of ploughs being used in Kullu, Solan, Shimla, Sirmour, Lahaul & Spiti and Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. The Joint between the shoe and the body is purposely avoided with a view to make the plough more rigid and robust, so that the implement can work on gravely soils with stones and other obstacles which are encountered during the course of ploughing. (Figs. 9.1a, b & c)

Fig. 9.1a Traditional plough

Fig. 9.1b Traditional plough

In another type, the shoe and body feature as separate parts (Fig. 9.1d). This type is particularly preferred in soils with a greater proportion of sand particles. This type of structure facilitates the replacement of the shoe when it wears out due to the abrasive action of the sand. This type of plough is used in Mandi, Chamba, Una and Kangra districts of Himachal Pradesh. In Sirmour district, the beam of the plough is joined to the handle instead of the body. This is done to provide more clearance under the beam and for easy passage over clods and stubble. The handle is 0.6 to 1 m long, 5 to 7.5 cm thick and 7.5 to' 12.5 cm wide and is fitted to the body of the plough.

Fig. 9 1c & d Traditional plough

The shoe, used in the plough, can be of different shapes and sizes. Ploughs used in dry lands have shoes which are generally of a triangular section while in wet land cultivation the shoes are of a more flat section.

The share is prepared from a mild steel bar, 0.6 to 7.5 m in length and 1.5 to 2.5 cm in width. The share is fixed to the shoe or body by means of a U-clamp or ring shaped clamp. The share point projects beyond the shoe by 5 to 7.5 cm. Beams generally vary in length from 2.4 to 3 m.

2. Yoke: The yoke has a projection at the centre to which a beam of implements like plough, leveller and harrow etc. are secured by a rope (Fig. 9.2).

Fig. 9.2 Neck yoke (jungle)

3. Leveller: The plank of the leveller is made of any locally available wood and shafts are generally made of bamboo sticks. Extra weight is added to all type of planks by placing stones on it or having person (s) ride on it. As the name suggests, levellers are used for levelling land (Fig. 9.3a & b).

Fig. 9.3a Leveller (Suhaga)

Fig. 9.3b Leveller (Suhaga)

4. Harrow: It has a wooden plank to which wood/iron pegs, handle and bamboo shaft are fitted. It is used for breaking soil crust after rain and also for uprooting weeds (Fig. 9.4).

5. Mallot: It has a wooden block to which a handle is attached. Occasionally, one end of the block is tapering. It is used for the breaking of clods (Fig. 9.5).

Interculture operation tools

1. Khilna: Its handle is made of a branch of sturdy wood and the tool itself is made of iron and is shaped like an arrowhead. It is used for uprooting of weeds (Fig. 9.6).

2. Kudali: Used for digging and weeding operations (Fig. 9.7), it is made of materials similar to the Khilna with the exception that the iron end is flat.

Fig. 4.4 Harrow (Dandal)

Fig. 9.5 Mallot

Fig. 9.6 Khilna

Fig. 9.7 Kudali

Fig. 9.8 Spade (Pharwa)

Harvesting tools:

The most common type of harvesting implement are small sickle, big sickle, darat, gandasa and small axe etc., (Fig. 9.9a, b, c & d).

Fig. 9.9a Small sikle (Daranti)

Fig. 9.9b Big sikle (Darati)

Fig. 9.9c Gandasa (Chopper)

Fig. 9.9d Axe (Kulhari)

The hand sickle is used to harvest crops like wheat, maize, barley, pulses and grass etc. Big sickle (Darat) is used to harvest fodder from trees. Gandasa (chopper) and axe are used to harvest crops like sugar-cane etc.

Postharvest tools and implements

1. Wooden Pin: Is used to remove the outer covering of maize cobs and is fashioned out of a bamboo stick.

2. Wooden Pole: These are used to detach grains from the maize cobs and grains from other crops through a beating action.

3. Suhaga: This is used to thresh both wheat and paddy crops according to traditional practice through the rubbing action of the suhaga with the tillers of crops.

4. Bamboo basket (Kilta): This is used for carrying FYM and farm produce (Fig. 9.10).

Fig. 9.10 Big bamboo basket (Kilta)

5. Tokri (Fig. 9.11). A small bamboo basket.

Fig. 9.11 A small bamboo basket (Tokri)

6. Hand mill: This is used to grind flour and pulses (Fig. 9.12).

Fig. 9.12 Indigenous hand mill

7. Winnower: This separates the grain from the husk (Fig. 9.13)

Fig. 9.13 Winnower (Shoop)

8. Sieve: This is used for the separation of different types of grains for elimination of alien material (Fig. 9.14).

Fig. 9.14 Sieve (Chanani)

9. Sack: It is used to store the farm produce. 12. Pine needle collecting tool (Fig. 9.18. The traditional sack is made from the skin of sheep and goat (Fig. 9.15).

Fig. 9.15 Sack made of goat skin

10. Shearer: This is used for shearing wool (Fig. 9.16).

11. Skinner: This is used for taking off the skin of slaughtered goat/sheep (Fig. 9.17).

Fig 916 Sshearer (Balwan)

Fig 9 17 Sheep/goat skinner (Kataru)

12. Pine needle collecting tool (Fig. 9.18)

Fig. 9.18 Tool for collecting pine needles (Kadera)

Miscellaneous tools

Hammer, jumper, wedge and shovel and hand saw are also used from time to time in the various farm operations.

Despite of their widespread use, even today, these indigenous implement/tools in general are not agronomically sound and as a result lower the efficiency and increase tiredness of the operator. There is an urgent need to improve upon the traditional implements so as to redress this serious limitation. The standardization of their design in accordance with the requirements of hill farming is long overdue.

Table 1: List of tools/implements in various regions of HP

Type of tools/implements	English name	Local name in regions
		Lahaul & Spiti	Chamba	Sirmour	Kinnaur	Bilaspur
I. Tillage and bed/land preparation tools	1. Wooden Plough	Nagal	Hal	Hal	Thong (Aawi)	Hal
	2. Yoke or Punjali	Joom	-	Joda		Jungda
	3. Hammer wooden (Mallot)	Thowa	dah	ud	Ghoon	Padawata
	4. Leveller	-	mach	Sohaga	Jorah	Maida
	5. Pick axe	Gainti	Gainti	Gainti	bilcha	Gainti
II. Interculture operation tools	1. Spade	Chagwal	Phawara	Phorwa	-	Jhhamb
	2. Harrow	-	Dandal	-	Gyama	Dandali
	3. Khilna	-	-	-	Chikri	Kilni
	4. Hoe (Kudal)	Okthan	Kudali	Kasi	Khassi	Kudali
	5. Hand hoe	-	Khurpi	Khurpi	Khot	Khurpa
	6. Iron hook provided with wooden handle	Surmn	-	-	-	-
III. Harvesting	1. Scythe	Dranti	Darati	Daranti	Sora (Dachi)	Dorati
	2. Sharp blade fitted to wooden handle	Jathugza	Gandasa	-	-	Rutasa
	3. Big sickle	Drant	Darat	Darant	Naryal (Daach)	Draft
	4. Small axe makudi	Karji	Jhontu	Teri	-	Kulhadu
	5. Plough	Nagal	Hal	Hal	Jhong	Hal
IV. Phostharvest Bambo pin	1. Wooden Pin/	-	-	-	-	Sua
	2. Threshing pole	-	-	-	Berka	Deeng
	3. Basket	Kilta	Kilta	Kilta	Kilta (Changer)	Tokri
	4. Suhaga (Leveller)		Mach	Moi	Jorah	Maida
	5. Winnower	Sheen	Chhaj	Zongfa	-	Chhaj
	6. Large sieve	-	-	-	Yara	Kera
	7. Threshing floor	-	-	-	Kholang	-
	8. Sack (Bag)	-	-	-	Phat	Bori
	9. Hand mill	Ranthak (Chackki)	-	-	-	Chakki
V. Additional	1. Chisel	Chutsa	Nihani	-	Zabbal	Chhini
	2. Jumper	Jhabbal	-	-	-	Chabbal
	3. Saw	-	Karolari	Aari	-	Aari
	4. Iron Hammer	-	-	-	-	Hathodi

Glossary of local terms

Aari	Small saw which is operated by single person
Agalmaka/Miamua/Rongchugala/Ahia	Religious festivals
Anar	Pomegranate (a tropical fruit with many seeds), Punica granatum
Angoori	A grape wine, Vitis spp.
Angora	Type of goat
Aonla	Emblica Officinalis
Arbi	Colocasia species
Bajagun	Mucuna prurita (a weed for controlling rat menace)
Baltoi	A vessel used for distillating wine from fermented fruits
Baraghar	Method for constructing small bed in the fields for irrigation purpose
Barter system	A system in which purchase and sale of animals, farm produce and goods is based on exhange basis
Basuti	Adhatoda vasica (a medicinal plant)
Batauva	Cissampelos pareira
Bathu	A leafy vegetable, Chenopodium album
Baurh	First floor of traditional hilly houses
Behla	Sharp edged axe used for separation of chilgoza seeds from its cones
Belcha	Spade
Beli/Belly	A multipurpose tree used for fuel, agricultural implements, medicine, etc.
Behmi	Wild almond
Ber	Zizypus mauritiana (an important fruit tree)
Berka	Threshing pole
Beul	Grewia optiva
Bhains	Salix tetrasperma
Bhang	Cannabis sativa, a multipurpose narcotic plant
Bharal	Animal found in cold desert of Himachal Pradesh
Bhera	Indigenous medicinal plant, Terminalia chebula
Bileha	Pick axe
Bori	Sack (Bag)
Buckwheat	Fagopyrum specie whose grains are used as a food
Bukarien	Sun dried slices of unripened mangoes, Mangifera indica
Chabbal	Jumper
Chaggar	A white stone used for curing paralysis
Chagwal	Spade
Chakkala-Belan	Rolling pin and board used for making chapatis
Chakki	Hand mill
Chaksa	Richest manure which comprises human exereta and animal bones
Chalta	A big special vessel made of brass used for preparing steam cooked cake of maize (Zea mays) and barley (Hordium vulgare)
Changer	Bamboo (Dendrocalamus spp.) containers used for drying food items
Changpass	Changra goats (type of goats) owner
Changthang	Name of place
Cheenee	A millet crop, Panicum miliaceum
Chhang/Ghanti	Alcoholic drink made from rice, Avena saliva starch
Chhini	Chisel
Chikri	Khilna
Chilgoza	Seeds of Pinus gerardiana, which considered as valuable dry fruit
Chillowane	Schima wallichii
Chirpine	Pinus roxburghii
Chola	A woollen dress
Chukor	Partrage found in cold deserts of Himachal Pradesh
Chulai	Leafy vegetable (Amaranthus viridis)
Chuli	Prunus armenica, wild apricot
Chullah	A fire place for cooking
Chum	Cross breed of yak and cow used for milk
Chutsa	Chisel
Cowpea	Fodder grass, Phaseolus vulgaris
Daach	Big sickle
Dachi	Sickle
Dan	Hammer
Dandal/Danthal	Harrow
Darant/Darat	Big sickle
Daranti/Darati	Sickle
Darauntha	A deodar (Cedrus deodara) wood container for storing grains
Ddah	A bamboo (Dendrocalamus spp.) sticks
Demo	Animal used for ploughing and transportation
Deodar	Cedrus deodara, timber yielding species of Himalayan forests
Desi	Indigenous/local
Dhan	Sheep and goats wealth
Dhar	High mountains
Dhars	High mountain peaks
Dhoonu	Wild onion type, Allium cepa
Diggi	Digout structure to store rain water
Do chu	Crop ready for harvest
Dokas	Grazing animal shelter
Dora	Rope tied at the waist by both men and women
Dorati/Dranti	Sickle
Draft/Drant	Big sickle
Dzo/Dzoma	Milk producing animals
Dzos	Animal used for ploughing
Gaddis	Semi-nomedic tribals of Kangra and Chamba districts of HP
Gainti	Pick axe
Galgal	A fruit of citrus (Citrus pseudolimon) family
Gandasa	Sharp blade fitted to wooden handle
Gandhala	Murraya koenigii
Garr dena	Process for ripen the crop
Garr dena	Process of stacking millet grains
Gep chu	Seed setting
Ghasni	Grass land
Ghee	Fats made from vegetable and animal’s milk
Ghoom	Hammer
Ghors	Stored grass heap
Gur/shakkar	Crude sugar
Gyama	Harrow
Hal	Wooden plough
Halod	An agricultural operation through ploughing carried out in kharif crops particularly for thinning of the crop and sowing of pulses as intercrop
Hathodi	Iron Hammer
Havan	A religious ceremony
Heeng	Asafoetida spp. (dried exudate)
Hukka	Device for smoking tobacco
Jalga	A perennial wild spice plant, Phytolaca acinosa
Jathugza	Sharp blade fitted to wooden handle
Jawanlari	Burning grass
Jeth	Summer month
Jhabbal	Jumper/Crowbar
Jhhamb	Spade
Jhong	Yoke
Jhontu	Small axe
Jhuming	Shifting cultivation
Joda/Joom/Jungla	Yoke (Farming implement used for ploughing and planking with bulls)
Jonks	Leechs
Jorah/Jorah	Leveller
Kachnar	Bahaunia variegata
Kail	Pinus wallichiana (Blue pine)
Kaimal	Mallotus philipinensis
Klam/Dambu	Grafting operation used in horticultural crops
Kalijiri	Centratherum antheminticum
Kamoli	Small wool pack
Kanda	Highest point where cultivable lands are found above the village
Kandas	Highest point of cultivation in a village
Kangoo	Comb for combing wood
Karnu	A local tree
Karolari	Saw
Kasi	Hoe
Kath	Pyrus pashia
Katha	Acacia catechu, Commercial product of khair tree
Kera	Large sieve
Khads	Water streams
Khair	Acacia catechu
Khaliyan	Courtyard or a small ground used for threshing their field crops
Kharif	Crop season from May-June to Oct.- Nov., main crops of this season are maize, paddy, pulses etc.
Kharji	Small axe
Khasipine	Pinus kesia
Kassi	Hoe
Khati	Dugout structure to store rain water
Khatti	Ginger (Zingiber officinalis) storage pits
Khawaja	Diety
Khejri	A multipurpose nitrogen fixing tree (Prosopis cineraria)
Khet	Fields
Khirak	Celtis australis
Kholang	Threshing floor
Khot	Hand hoe
Khurda	Animal foot disease
Khurpa/Khurpi	Hand hoe
Khus	Grass (Vitivera gigentica)
Kikar	Acacia nilotica
Kilni	Khilna
Kilta	A wooden container
Kimze	Cattle
Kodo	A millet crop, Paspalum serobiculatum
Kongni	Millet, Setaria italica
Kudal/Kudali	Hoe
Kuhal/Kuhl	Small water channel used for irrigation purposes
Kuldebta	Village deity
Kulhadu	Small axe
Kuljana	Type of vine
Kundli	Stacked paddy bundles
Kunish	Alnus spp.
Kutcha	Mud structure
Kuth	Saussurea lappa, a commercial cash crop
Lahanga/Pattee	Long woollen dress
Until	Broad leaved fodder (Herb)
Lota	Container generally used for drinking water and watering plants
Mach/Maida	Leveller
Maddim	A plain wooden structure used for levelling the ploughed lands
Mahhash	A cowdung storing pit
Mahlash	Fermenting vat or bottle placed in cow dung pit
Mahopar	Edible fungus
Mahotar/dhingri/guchhi	Edible fungus
Maina	Name of bird
Makudi	Small axe
Malundi	Shepherds
Mandal	Millet grain
Mandal/sonk	A millet crop
Mash	Leguminous crop used as pulse (Vigna radiata)
Masoor	Mustard (Lense esculanta)
Masur	Leguminous crop used as pulse (Lense esculanta)
Matilari	Name of bird
Meryana	Ulmus leviegata
Methi	Trigonella foenum graecum, Fenugreek (important spice)
Miar Nallah	A place in Lahaul part of Lahaul & Spiti
Mint/Pudina	Mint (Mentha spp.)
Moi	Leveller
Moong	Leguminous crop used as pulse (Vigna mungo)
Moori	Concentrated alcoholic drink
Mug	Container used for watering plants
Nagal	Wooden plough
Nallah/Nalla/Nallaha	A mini water stream
Naryal	Big sickle
Navratras	A set of auspicious nine days in Hindu religion
Nayan	Animal found in cold deserts of Himachal Pradesh
Neem	Azadirachta indica
Nialu	Name of bird
Nihani	Chisel
Non chu	Flowering
Oei/Ohi	Albizia chinensis
Okthan	Hoe
Oven	Grain storage room
Pabo	High pasture
Padawata	.Hammer
Pahra	A small bundle of maize plants made after harvesting the crop
Pala	Turn-wise distribution of water
Panaudi	A container (bigger than sup/chhaj) made up of bamboo sticks used for winnowing grains on large scale
Pang	Type of grass
Papiha	Name of bird
Pashimna goat	A special type of goat which produced very soft wool
Pattu	A woollen blanket
Peri/Pedu	Bamboo container
Phafra/Phaphra	Buckwheat (Phagopyrum spp.)
Phanani	A bow shaped device used for combing wool
Phat	Sack (Bag)
Phawara	Spade
Phorwa	Spade
Pobo	High pastures
Podu	Shifting cultivation
Poola	Bundle of grass
Pooli/poola	Harvested paddy bundle
Puhal	A shephard
Punjali	Yoke
Purih/Purah	Containers made up of leaves
Rabi crop	Crops like wheat, mustard etc. grown during the months of Oct.-Nov. to April-May
Rajmash	A pulse crop (Phaseolus vulgaris)
Rango	Highest point where cultivable lands are found above the village
Ranthak	Hand mill
Rashi	Dilute alcoholic drink
Rushans	Earthen pots
Rutasa	Sharp blade fitted to wooden handle
Safeda	Eucalyptus spp.
Sak chu	Growing
Sarkanda grass	A wild growing long grass commonly used for thatching houses and making bee hives (Saccharum spontaneous)
Sarson	Mustard (Brassica compastris)
Shangma stone	A bluish coloured water soluble stone with weedicide properties
Sheen	Winnower
Shennang	Cultivable lands below the village
Shisham	Dalbergia sisoo
Singaitoo	Traditional song
Singaitoo	A local song
Situ	A mango variety (Mangifera spp.)
Sling & karban	Traditional devices for scaring birds and stray animals
Sonk	Millet grain
Sonth	Wild almond {Prunus spp.)
Soolini Mela	Local fair of Soolini deity
Soop	Winnower
Sora	Sickle
Spang	Type of grass
Sua	Wooden pin
Suhaga	A plain wooden structure used for levelling the ploughed fields
Sup/Chhaj	Light wooden structure used for grain winnowing
Surmn	Iron hook provided with wooded handle
Taklu	A special spindle device
Talent	A pyramid shaped structure made for storing dry grass
Tambaku	Tobacco (Nicotiana tobaccum)
Tatihari	Name of bird
Ten	Small axe
Thali	Plate
Thobi	Cloth made from yaks hair
Thoras	A shade tree adjoining to small streams
Thoug	Wooden plough
Thowa/Ud	Hammer
Thua/Zhumb	Harvested stacks/bundles of maize at one place from which later on cobs are separated
Tillbohara	Dragan fly
Titar	Partridge
Tokhara	A small wooden structure used for digging the soil
Tokhre	A wooden structure used in Ladakh area for digging the soil to facilitate horizontal spread of roots of vegetable crops
Tokra	A small wooden container
Tokru	A wooden container
Tol chu	Germination
Toll	A pyramid shaped structure used for storing dry grass
Toon	Toona ciliata
Toot	Moms alba
Tor	A multiple wild plant, Bauhinia vahilii
Trakar	Pastures
Urd	Leguminous crop, Vigna radiata
Urma	Device made from horns of animals and used for irrigation in initial stage of crop
Utis	Alnus nepalensis
Yara	Large sieve
Zabbal	Jumper
Zings	Water pond
Zira	Cumin (important spice)
Zongfa	Winnower

Acknowledgements

Author expreses his appreciation and gratitude to the following colleagues of Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan for their valuable technical input and active cooperation in compiling the information on different chapters of this book.

1. Dr SP Arya, Professor of Silviculture
2. Dr(Mrs) Usha Chauhan, Assistant Scientist, Entomology
3. Or Prem Raj Gupta, Sr Entomologist
4. Dr MS Jangra, Asstt Agrometeorologist, Soil Science
5. Dr SD Kashyap, Dy Director of Research (Agroforestry)
6. Dr IP Sharma, Dy Director of Research (Horticulture)
7. Dr PC Sharma, Asstt Scientist (Fruit Technology)
8. Mr. DP Sharma, Technical Assistant, Soil Science
9. Dr(Mrs) Vidya Thakur, Asstt Scientist (Forestry)
10. Dr ML Verma, Asstt Scientist, Soil Science

Author is also thankful to other colleagues Dr AK Randev, Dr AK Agnihotri, Dr RC Sharma, Ms Aparna Negi, Ms Ambika Verma, Ms Usha Rana who put in a great deal of painstaking efforts for critically reading this manuscript and to Mr. Asha Ram for his tireless and devoted efforts in composing of this manuscript. Thanks are also due to Sh Mohinder Singh Chauhan who took pains in drawing the figures.

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