Chronic Energy Deficiency : Consequences and Related Issues (International Dietary Energy Consultative Group - IDECG, 1987, 201 pages): Effects of chronic energy deficiency on stature, work capacity and productivity: 1. Studies in adults: 1.2. Endurance

Chronic Energy Deficiency : Consequences and Related Issues (International Dietary Energy Consultative Group - IDECG, 1987, 201 pages)

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Introduction

Research relating to energy adaptation in man

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1. General introduction

2. The Sukhatme-Margen hypothesis

3. Is energy balance regulated in man?

4. The time basis of energy regulation

5. Altered metabolic rate

6. Other Sukhatme analyses

7. Problems in testing the Sukhatme-Margen hypothesis

8. The reproducibility of metabolic rates in man

9. Adaptation to underfeeding

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9.1. The range of adaptation

9.2. The response to semistarvation

10. Overfeeding studies

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10.1. Early studies

10.2. Prolonged overfeeding

11. Attempts to test the Sukhatme-Margen hypothesis(es)

12. Concluding remarks

References

Seasonality in energy metabolism

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1. Introduction

2. Reasons of seasonal variations in energy metabolism

3. Seasonal body weight fluctuations

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3.1. Children

3.2. Adults

4. Seasonal fluctuations of energy expenditure

4.1. Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

4.2. Physical activity and energy expenditure

5. Conclusions

6. Research priorities

References

Chronic energy deficiency and the effects of energy supplementation

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1. Introduction

2. Definitions and descriptions

2.1. Chronic energy deficiency

2.2. Energy supplementation

2.3. Targets of supplementation

2.4. The effects of supplementation

3. Approaches to the study of the effects of energy supplementation

4. Supplementation studies

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4.1. The INCAP study

4.2. The Gambian studies

4.3. The Bacon Chow Study, Taiwan

4.4. Conclusions

5. Some possible explanations for the small effects

5.1. Are the recipients really malnourished?

5.2. Are the target groups being energy-supplemented?

5.3. Are the target groups appropriate?

5.4. Are the outcome variables appropriate?

6. Contemporary models

7. Gaps in our knowledge

8. Concluding comments

References

A critical view of three decades of research on the effects of chronic energy malnutrition on behavioral development

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1. Background

2. The main-effect model

3. Deficiencies of the main-effect model

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3.1. Outcomes of primary and secondary malnutrition

3.2. Effects of the environment and experience

3.3. Outcomes of monofocal and multifocal interventions

4. Suggestions for future research

References

Effects of chronic energy deficiency on stature, work capacity and productivity

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1. Studies in adults

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1.1. Malnutrition and VO2 max

1.2. Endurance

1.3. Productivity and physical work capacity

2. Studies in children

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2.1. Anthropometry, sexual maturation and body composition in boys

2.2. Growth of work capacity

3. Men and boys

3.1. Body size, composition and VO2 max

3.2. Energy cost of load-carrying

3.3. Efficiency of economy of submaximal work in malnutrition

3.4. Reduced physical activity in chronic energy deficiency

3.5. Work performance in large and small individuals

4. Productivity, earning and nutrition in developing countries

5. Summary

Acknowledgements

References

The energy requirements of pregnancy and lactation

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1. Introduction

2. Background

3. Methodology

3.1. Selection of subjects

3.2. Body weight and body fat

3.3. Energy intake

3.4. Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

3.5. Standardized exercise test

3.6. Normal daily activity pattern

3.7. Daily energy expenditure

3.8. Frequency of measurements

4. Results and discussion

5. Conclusion on pregnancy data

6. Lactation

References

Methodology of field studies related to socioeconomic effects of chronic energy deficiency

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1. Introduction

2. Conceptual framework

3. Study designs

4. Human capital studies

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4.1. Methodological aspects

4.2. Analytical limitations

5. Economic behavioral studies

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5.1. Methodological aspects

5.2. Analytical limitations

6. Participation of the community in research

7. Concluding remarks

Appendix

References

Pregnancy, lactation and childhood: Report of working group 1*

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1. Introduction

2. Pregnancy

2.1. New information

2.2. Policy implications

2.3. Needs for research

3. Lactation

3.1. New information

3.2. Policy implications

3.3. Needs for research

4. Children

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4.1. Energy supply and physical growth of infants and children

4.2. Energy supply and physical activity of children

4.3. Chronic energy deficiency and development

4.4. Causes of inadequate energy intakes in children

5. Conclusion

Work capacity, work performance: Report of working group 2*

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1. Definitions

1.1. Physical work capacity

1.2. Work performance

1.3. Chronic energy deficiency (CED)

2. Summary of existing knowledge

3. Priority studies

4. Relationship of the proposed research activities to developing countries

5. Recommendations for continuing obligations

References

Social and economic development: Report of working group 3*

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1. Introduction

2. Designs for studying the effects of low energy intake on behavior

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2.1. Naturalistic designs

2.2. Experimental designs

3. Types of variables

4. Proposed future activities with IDECG support

List of participants

1.2. Endurance

An endurance test is carried out on a treadmill or bicycle ergometer at a workload (VO₂) of 70-80% of the subject's maximum until exhaustion supervenes, usually with the heart rate within about five beats of the maximum. Because of the difficulty in performing this test, only a few laboratories have attempted measurement of endurance times in normal individuals and, to our knowledge, none except our own, in malnourished subjects.

From a number of sources, it is known that the maximum relative workload that can be sustained for an 8-hour workday usually does not exceed about 35-40% VO₂ max. Thus, MICHAEL et al. (1961) found in laboratory treadmill work that 8 hours could be tolerated without undue fatigue when the relative load did not exceed 35% VO₂ max. Subjects rested for 10 minutes each hour and for one half-hour between the 4th and 5th hours of work. In the building industry, ÅSTRAND (1967) reported that about 40% VO₂ max was the upper limit that could be tolerated for an 8-hour workday, and we have estimated that sugar-cane cutters worked at an average of about 35% of their VO₂ max during an 8-hour day (SPURR, BARCO-NIETO and MAKSUD, 1975). These studies were performed in physically fit subjects. Sedentary individuals can be expected to have lower upper limits for 8 hours of work (ÅSTRAND and RODAHL, 1970, p. 292).

We have measured maximum endurance times at 80% VO₂ max (T₈₀) in the groups of malnourished subjects described above (BARAC-NIETO et al., 1978; 1980). We did not find any significant differences between the three groups (M, I and S) of malnourished men; T₈₀ averaged 97 ± 12 min (mean ± SE) in all subjects (BARAC-NIETO et al., 1978). However, it might be assumed that the VO₂ max of Group S subjects would be about 2.4 L/min had they not been malnourished, and that about 35% (0.84 L/min) could be sustained for an 8-hour workday. The value of 0.84 L/min is 80% of the VO₂ max (1.05 L/min) for these subjects who had maximum endurance times at this relative workload of a little over 1.5 hours, a loss of about 6.5 hours of daily working time or about an 80% reduction in productive potential (BARAC-NIETO et al., 1978). Using a similar method of estimation, BARAC-NIETO (1984) has calculated a 16% reduction in work output of the M subjects, a 35% decrease in I and a 78% reduction in S men.

In the case of Group S during dietary repletion, an interesting change in T₈₀ was observed. Endurance times were significantly reduced from 113 minutes at the first measurement of the basal period to 42 minutes at the end of the dietary repletion (BARAC-NIETO et al., 1980). The explanation for this surprising reduction is still not clear. HANSON-SMITH et al. (1977) reported decreased work-endurance times in rats on high-protein diets compared to animals ingesting an isocaloric carbohydrate diet, and BERGSTRÖM et al. (1967) and GOLLNICK et al. (1972) have shown that diets in which the energy value of carbohydrate has been replaced with fat and/or protein lead to reduced stores of muscle glycogen. Furthermore, BERGSTRÖM et al. (1967) demonstrated that the maximum endurance time in humans is directly related to the initial glycogen content of skeletal muscle.

During the dietary repletion period of the Group S subjects, carbohydrate intake was reduced from 64 to 50% of calories. In a normal individual this amount of carbohydrate should be sufficient to maintain muscle glycogen stores, but definitive studies seem not to have been done (DURNIN, 1982). The rebuilt muscle tissue of Group S subjects may not store glycogen normally and, together with the lack of regular exercise in the protracted sedentary existence in the metabolic ward, may lead to reduced muscle glycogen and shorter endurance times. Nutritive supply to muscles, and the metabolic and endocrine responses which regulate it during both short term and prolonged exercise, have not been investigated in malnourished individuals. Even though there is little reason at the moment to suspect abnormal muscle function in acute exercise testing to maximum levels, the responses to prolonged exercise may be worth investigating.