(introductory text...)

Nikolaus Gelpke and Hiran W. Jayarwardene

Regional cooperation in science: the Helsinki convention for the Baltic (Nikolaus Gelpke)

1 Introduction

On 22 March 1974 the seven States of the Baltic region - Denmark, Sweden, Finland, USSR, Poland, German Democratic Republic, and the Federal Republic of Germany - signed the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment (HELCOM) at its Secretariat in Helsinki, Finland. In the preamble of HELCOM, the parties recognize their responsibility "to protect and enhance the values of the marine environment of the Baltic Sea area for the benefit of their peoples," and that this "cannot effectively be accomplished by national efforts only but that close regional cooperation and other appropriate international measures aiming to fulfill these tasks are urgently needed."

The Helsinki Convention was the first regional treaty to cover land-based pollution sources and, in particular, to combat marine pollution from oil in the entire drainage basin, which is 4.3 times as large as the area of the Baltic Sea itself. Certainly the inspiration to initiate conventions for similar-sized semi-closed marine areas like the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean, and others, was drawn from the success of the intergovernmental action in protecting the Baltic Sea. This success was partly due to the well-developed organizational structure of Baltic marine science.

This chapter provides an overview of the reasons leading to this successful cooperation in the Baltic region. For a better understanding of the development of scientific and political cooperation in the region, a brief historical description, followed by the environmental aspects of the Baltic Sea, will be given. As an example of multilateral cooperation in the Baltic region, the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission will be described in more detail.

A comparison between the "Blue Plan" for the Mediterranean Sea and HELCOM may lead to new concepts in the Baltic region with regard to the existing new political and socio-economic situation in the eastern parts of the Baltic.

2 The Baltic region in its historical context

The Baltic has first to be seen in its historical perspective to understand the background of regional cooperation in science. This brief survey describes its social, political, and legal dimensions.

The history of human settlements in the Baltic basin dates back to the neolithic era - the Bronze and Iron Ages, when successive cultures were established on its shores and contacts with south European states existed. (O'Dell 1957)

The western and southern coastal Baltic areas have remained relatively stable since the tenth century. Slavic tribes had occupied most of the coastal area between the Elbe and the Vistula Rivers, while German Saxons on the southern coast had only a narrow foothold near Denmark. In the north, the western shores of the Baltic basin were inhabited by two Scandinavian tribes, the Swedes and Goths, while the Danes occupied their present area plus parts of the western and southern coastal Baltic areas. (Boczek 1989) The relatively stable political situation in this part of the Baltic region led to a strong economy, which has persisted to the present.

The southeastern and eastern parts of the Baltic region have a more complex human and political history. As an exception to the region, the Gulf of Finland was settled by Finno-Ugrics who migrated to the Baltic region from a region between the Ural and middle Volga Rivers. The southeastern part was settled by Baltic tribes belonging to the Indo-European family; the Livs, Lithuanians and Prussians. (Boczek 1989)

While the southern and western countries established their own states and had been converted to Christianity by the tenth century, the eastern parts of the region were occupied and subjugated by different states such as the German Order, and the Baltic tribes had been converted to Christianity by force. (Boczek 1989) Already in those times a cultural division was established between the Roman Catholic West and the Russian Byzantine East.

The quite stable situation of the western and southwestern parts of the region led, after a Viking period of three centuries, to the Hanseatic League in the fourteenth century, mainly controlled by the Germans. The Hanseatic League was a trading group in northern Europe, controlling the East-West trade of the time. This old tradition of East-West cooperation is very important for the understanding of scientific cooperation today, encompassing such different cultural and political systems.

The Hanseatic League was later controlled by Denmark and this country remained, after the decline of the "Hansa" in the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, the dominant power in the Baltic region. Until World War II different states such as Poland, Sweden or USSR had the leading role in the control of the Baltic region through trade or military power. After both World Wars I and II, the region underwent political transformations. The most important political development was the rise of the USSR as the strongest Baltic state and the creation of the two German states, as well as the extension of the Polish coastline to more than 500 kilometres in 1945.

Today, the Baltic region is very highly populated and industrialized, economically intensively used, endangered by pollution and political insecurity. In the drainage basin of the 6 coastal States Finland, USSR, Poland, the Federal Republic of Germany, Denmark and Sweden - live approximately 71 million people, 51 per cent of whom are Polish, 16 million reside directly along the Baltic coast. (Jenisch 1991) These figures combined with the fact that the share of the Baltic region in worldwide industrial production has reached perhaps 15 per cent - testify to the stresses to which the marine Baltic environment has been exposed in its recent history. (Boczek 1989)

However, the lesson of Baltic history is, that even in a region where there are such different political and religious States, a stable political situation and old traditions in trade can lead to amicable cooperation among all of the littoral States. Only in times of war, when they try to achieve hegemony in the Baltic was cooperation never conclusive.

3 Environmental aspects of the Baltic region

The necessity to develop certain (scientific) multilateral agreements highly relevant to environmental concerns in the Baltic region, has to be explained by the specific marine environment of this region.

The Baltic Sea (417,000 km²) is one of the largest brackish-water areas in the world. Extremely shallow (mean depth 55 m, maximum 459 m) and geologically very young (formed 12,000 years ago), this semi-enclosed body of water (22,000 km³) provides an ideal experimental test bed for the proper understanding of marine environmental changes under the tremendous influence of man. It has not been recognized for about two decades that the Baltic Sea is seriously polluted, and various appraisals have become available. (Zmudzinski 1989) It is not only the influence of human activities, however, but also the specific environmental conditions in the Baltic Sea that have led to this situation.

The input of fresh waters into the Baltic Sea results in the stratification of the water column into two main layers, a surface layer (less saline) and a heavier bottom layer (more saline). The natural mixing of the water column by wind and currents influences only the upper layer. The Kattegat is divided through very shallow rises (18 m), where only specific climatic conditions allow the input of heavier salt water from the North Sea to enter the Baltic Sea. So the slow replacement time for 50 per cent of the water is about 8 years; and that for 90 per cent, about 25 years. The water exchange with the Baltic Sea is made more difficult by the fact that the Baltic Sea consists of several relatively deep basins, interrupted by shallow rises. The bottom layer remains less well mixed, and becomes progressively poorer in oxygen over a period of years due to biological activity. This natural phenomenon has been well known in the past, but increasing eutrophication of the Baltic Sea has resulted in a faster consumption of oxygen in the lower stratum of the bottom layer. The prevailing anaerobic conditions favour the growth of sulphate-reducing bacteria producing hydrogen sulphide, which is influencing the environment as a cell-poison and reductant which leads to the inhospitality of the stratum to its earlier inhabitants. (Babenerd and Meyerhöfer 1988) The last important salt-water input from the North Sea was in 1975-1976. As a result one could measure an increase of salinity and oxygen in the bottom layer, and as a consequence some animals could settle, but only temporarily.

Another consequence of the brackish character of the Baltic Sea is a minimal species diversity comparing with fresh water or ocean water. The increasing anoxia in the bottom layer enhances this fact even more.

The highly industrialized nations in the drainage basin of this small semi-enclosed sea cause not only eutrophication but also serious heavy-metal pollution. The increase of heavy metals in the bottom sediments where municipal and industrial wastes are being discharged (Kremling 1987) result in highly elevated copper concentrations of red and green algae and crustaceans; lead in red algae; and cadmium in the brown algae. Near the coast, mercury concentrations are, therefore, substantially high in the tissues of the commercially important herring. Levels of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), polychlorinated hydrocarbons (PCBs) and oil (petroleum hydrocarbons) have been declining in recent years. However, higher values can still be found in coastal areas and near municipal centres.

In summary, eutrophication and the continued high input of toxic substances, particularly near industrialized centres, are of concern especially with regard to the relatively long period of renewal of the Baltic Sea water with water of the open ocean.

4 Multilateral cooperation in the Baltic region

The term "dominium maris baltici" is well known in history, science, and international law as the futile attempt of Danes, Germans, Poles, Russians and Swedes to achieve hegemony. There have been many attempts, but the political condition was never there. Since the early Middle Ages the law of free market and old trading traditions were stronger than any other power.

At the 6th International Geographical Congress held in London in 1895 Professor Otto Petterson of Sweden put forward a plan for international marine science cooperation for the Baltic, with special emphasis on the commercial aspect of fisheries. (Voigt 1986) These first endeavours to put forward a scheme for international marine science cooperation originated in the attempt to organize and optimize commercial cooperation. The congress recognized the scientific and economic importance of the results of recent research in the Baltic, especially with regard to fishing interests, and its opinion was that the survey of the area should be continued and extended to include the cooperation of the different nationalities. First in the field of scientific cooperation was the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), founded in 1902.

Although issues of pollution have been recognized for a long time, it took half a century to create political circumstances allowing scientific cooperation in the region. At the start, multilateral cooperation among the seven Baltic littoral States was only possible after the official recognition of the German Democratic Republic by the Federal Republic of Germany in 1973 in the "Grundlagenvertrag." This treaty formed the prerequisite for the first multilateral convention the Baltic Fishing Convention of 1973.

The Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources in the Baltic Sea and the Belts was signed in Gdansk in September 1973. Under this condition, the International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission was established in Warsaw. In its preamble the parties to the Convention recognize the need for cooperation to preserve and increase the living resources of the Baltic Sea and the Belts. The Convention is an important legal instrument to provide a permanent system for resource monitoring, but a weakness of the Convention is that the Commission is powerless with regard to nonparties. It merely can "draw the attention" of nonparties to acts they may have committed that might have an adverse effect on the Baltic fishery resources. (Broms 1989)

Shortly after this first treaty the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea followed in 1974. The Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) was established under the Convention in Helsinki. A detailed description and discussion of HELCOM is given in subsequent paragraphs.

Various other Conventions followed the first two:

- The Nordic Environmental Protection Convention of 1974
- The Final Act of 1975 on Security and Cooperation in Europe
- The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution of 1979
- The Convention Relating to the Non-Fortification and Neutralization of the Aaland Islands in 1921.

Besides intergovernmental agencies created by these Conventions there are two other organizational bodies - the Baltic Marine Biologists (BMB) established in 1968 and the Conference of Baltic Oceanographers of 1957 both independent non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The Baltic Marine Biologists was established by marine scientists of the Baltic region, mainly to elaborate and standardize methods for marine biological investigations and encourage close cooperation between the different scientific institutes along the Baltic coast. The early establishment of the NGOs in the Baltic region in 1957 and 1968 offered the chance for international cooperation long before intergovernmental agreements were possible. Therefore, independent non-governmental organizations are obviously a promising tool for peaceful scientific cooperation in a region where political security is still not yet established.

The existing multilateral agreements are an important contribution to political cooperation among the seven Baltic States. It is interesting to observe that the first environmental agreements were established, followed by political Conventions, both responsible for the benefit of the environment and security of the Baltic region. The development of environmental contracts appears to have influenced the trust among the various littoral States - not least among States belonging to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact. (Broms 1989) In other words, regional cooperation in environmental problems appears to enhance regional cooperation in the political area of the region. In a way, the environmental responsibility took over the stabilizing role of trade and commerce in earlier days.

5 Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission

The basic foundation of cooperation among the Baltic coastal States is the "Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area" or the "Helsinki Convention." This Convention, adopted in 1974 and enforced since 1980, is the first international instrument to deal with different sources of pollution in respect to a given regime. (Ehlers 1988) The Convention led to the establishment of the Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM), which serves as the executive body for the Convention.

Article III.1 of the Convention establishes a fundamental principle: "The contracting Parties shall individually or jointly take all appropriate legislative, administrative or other relevant measures in order to prevent and abate pollution and protect and enhance the marine environment of the Baltic Sea."

The basic provision governing scientific-technological cooperation is provided for in Article XVI: "The contracting Parties undertake directly, or when appropriate through competent regional and other international organizations, to cooperate in the fields of science, technology and other research, and exchange data as well as scientific information for the purposes of the present Convention."

A description and evaluation of activities under the Convention are given below.

A Survey and research

Since 1979 the seven littoral States of the Baltic region are carrying out a "Baltic Monitoring Programme" under the guidelines of HELCOM. Measurements of the environmental quality are carried out regularly at stipulated stations in the Baltic Sea. A weakness of the monitoring programme is the limitation of survey to the central Baltic Sea, with no monitoring stations close to estuaries or dumping areas.

B Heavy metals

Trace element data in fish and shellfish, gained from a baseline study, from different investigations and national monitoring programmes provide some insight into geographical differences in the levels of the contaminants involved. (Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission 1990) HELCOM concludes in its "Second Assessment" that it is still very difficult to compare data from different laboratories, owing to methodological uncertainties. Without such basic scientific studies it is not possible to assess the fate of pollution by trace metals entering and leaving Baltic waters, from their accumulation in recent sediments. (Voigt 1986) There is an urgent need for intercomparison and standardization. However, the decrease of copper, cadmium, zinc, and lead in fish since 1978 to levels comparable with the North Sea are showing the success of intergovernmental cooperation within HELCOM.

C Organic pollutants

The prohibition of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) use in all littoral States through the Convention resulted in a decrease of DDT concentration in seabird eggs and herrings. Consequently, the stock of fish-eating seabirds increased since 1970. Other harmful organic pollutants of great concern like PCB, PCT, HCH, etc. are more complicated to measure. New measuring methods prevent a direct comparison with older ascertained concentrations. Expensive high-tech methods and the need of very experienced analysts are still limiting success. This is a particular problem for regional cooperation in science, because new methods are difficult to introduce and standardize among the different countries in the Baltic region with such different socio-ecosystems. Another problem is the great variety of sources: riverain input, direct discharges, and airborne transport which need simultaneous international product-control regulations and national efforts to control emissions from all responsible sectors.

D Plant nutrients

Seventy thousand tons of phosphorus and one million tons of nitrogen (as nitrate, ammonia and organic compounds) are discharged annually into the Baltic Sea. This fertilizing should have an impact on the algal growth. In fact, in the period between 1980-1985 in many parts of the Baltic Sea the nutrient concentrations increased, but at the same time, saline water from the bottom layer surged to the surface. Therefore, it is not easy to distinguish the origin of increased nutrient concentrations. However, strengthened investigation of the deep-water layers and measuring of nutrient input by river discharge must be strengthened.

E Eutrophication

Increasing concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen in the winter water often precludes an intensive phytoplankton springbloom. The later biodegradation of this biomass consumes oxygen, which is the reason for the increasing oxygen depletion in the bottom layer of the Baltic Sea. Scientific proof of this phenomenon has been given. (Babenerd and Meyerhöfer 1988) For the summertime the cooperating monitoring programme of HELCOM could measure an increase of primary production comparing the time-scales 1975-1978 and 1980-1983. The second Periodic Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea describes a further increase of nutrient concentrations during 19841988, but in recent years the Commission could observe a stagnation in several areas of the Baltic Sea. However, the release of phosphorus from the sediment under anoxic conditions is still increasing. Another new phenomenon in the Baltic Sea is the appearance of toxic algal blooms like Gyrodinium aureolum and Prorocentrum minimum.

HELCOM: Organization and policy

Many articles have been written about the organization and policy of the "Helsinki Convention." Nobody denies that HELCOM is, in comparison with other intergovernmental agreements, very successful and a model in cooperation and efficiency. But insights into the reality of the Convention allow perhaps a better assessment of their problems and successes.

Obviously one of the secrets of a successful intergovernmental cooperation in science is a functioning communication system between the different States, their governments, and the scientists. In Germany, it is the Federal Minister of Transport who has the primary responsibility in the Cabinet for matters related to the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, including the "Helsinki Convention." The Deutsches Hydrographisches Institut (DHI), a Federal agency, has responsibility for monitoring the Baltic Sea, and to forward the information, for example, monitoring data. HELCOM contacts the Federal Ministry for Research and Technology or the DHI directly. These organs then forward the information to the responsible scientists (e.g., marine biologists at the "Institut für Meereskunde" in Kiel). A weakness in this information pathway is that the responsible scientists sometimes do not get the information in time in the complete form. A closer information network should be established between HELCOM and the scientists. The successful direct cooperation among scientists from different countries confirm this suggestion.

The recognition of the two German states was the political prerequisite for the "Helsinki Convention." But there are still political and socio-economic differences between the "western" and "eastern" world. The Convention had the delicate role of establishing scientific and technological cooperation within all seven littoral States of the Baltic Sea. Therefore, since the Convention has been in force in 1980, more than ten years of a remarkable cooperation must be appreciated. Difficulties in cooperation, however, have obviously existed in the past and remain to be solved. The official communication and basic data exchange between HELCOM and the USSR was sometimes very difficult. This situation was aggravated by the fact that many scientists of the USSR or Poland were unable to obtain travel permits. The communication between "western" and "eastern" scientists is based mostly on private efforts, and so such a lack of information resulted in great difficulties for the cooperation between the states and HELCOM.

The new and existing political development in all of the eastern countries has led to a completely new situation. But the opening of the "east" is also problematic. Poland, for instance, has financial problems for the running of scientific programmes, especially with regard to such expensive equipment as is used for the chemical part of the monitoring programme.

6 Comparison between HELCOM and regional seas institutional framework

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was established in 1972; it designated the oceans as one of its first priorities, and endorsed a regional approach to maritime environmental problems. As a result, the UNEP Regional Seas Programme was established in 1974 with an initial focus on the Mediterranean Sea. HELCOM served as a model for its establishment. For a comparison of HELCOM and the Regional Seas Programme, it is instructive to compare HELCOM and the "Mediterranean Action Plan," the first of the six programmes now in formal operation.

In a way, the history of both agreements has many parallels. Like the ICES for the Baltic region, the International Commission for Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea (Monaco) of 1910 was the basis for scientists to collect and exchange data on the causes and effects of marine pollution. (Boxer 1982)

Since the early 1970s several UN organizations have been acting on the basis of a growing awareness of problems of the Mediterranean Sea (FAO, IOC, UNESCO, IMO). In 1974 UNEP set up a comprehensive Action Plan for the Mediterranean Sea. The Plan was adopted in 1976 by 16 of the littoral States.

The four principles of the Mediterranean Action Plan are:

a. a legal framework for cooperation, in the form of an umbrella convention and a series of technical protocols;

b. a plan for coordinated scientific research, monitoring, and information exchange as a basis for determining priorities and policy;

c. provisions for institutional and financial arrangements; and

d. an integrated planning and development component, including socio-economic considerations. (Gebremedhin 1989)

Obviously, there are organizational and administrative differences between the Action Plan and HELCOM, but the research and monitoring component of the two agreements is comparable. However, the Mediterranean Action Plan goes a decisive step further. Within the framework of the Mediterranean Action Plan the "Blue Plan" was formulated and adopted in 1975 in Barcelona under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme. The Blue Plan recognizes the need for economic growth in the region, but with the constraint that such development must be environmentally sound. (Gebremedhin 1989)

The recognition of the importance of socio-economic development for a region where scientific cooperation should be established could be a model for the new political situation in the Baltic region. The dramatic changes in the former USSR and Poland and the reunification of the two German States intensify the need for a "Baltic Blue Plan."

The lesson from HELCOM for the regional seas institutional framework is on the organizational and administrative level. HELCOM as the executive component of the "Helsinki Convention" has the advantage of a relatively small and independent administrative organization. Although this administration is well defined there are still the above-mentioned problems of communication between HELCOM and the people from the participating countries who are involved. For a more effective coordination, communication and scientific cooperation must be conducted in a most direct way.

However, the Baltic region differs from the Mediterranean area in several important aspects which makes direct comparison very difficult. In the Baltic, tourism does not play as dominant a role as in the Mediterranean area. Tourism is, on one hand, a serious pollution problem, and on the other hand, a prospective financing source, if new financial concepts could be realized. Another difference is the rapidly growing population in the Mediterranean area whereas the population in the Baltic region is relatively stable.

Both Conventions provide a framework for cooperation where each can serve as a model for the other in some special way.

7 Further prospects

The Second Periodic Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea, 1984-1988, gives in its general conclusions detailed information about requisite measures for the future. Conclusively there is still a need for greater knowledge about:

- the water exchange between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea,
- the reasons for the increased pH,
- the biological degradation of organic pollutants,
- the early stages of development of fishes, and
- the total volume input of organic pollutants.

These are just some points of the mentioned scientific needs.

Furthermore, the Second Periodic Assessment requires the continuation, and an extension of the Baltic Monitoring Programme (BMP). The efficiency of the BMP could be enhanced if the planning of surveillance cruises were better coordinated in a central point. This would improve data supply and use. At present, uncertainties in data handling is due above all to insufficient accessibility and lack of quality control by users.

The completely new situation and the continuous rapid political and socioeconomic development of the eastern countries of the Baltic region make it difficult to make projections for the future. What is certain, however, is that the need for scientific and technological support will increase. The exchange of data and experience between HELCOM and the eastern countries and between scientists and the various States may, in fact, become easier. As an important result of this development, the possibility to combat land-based pollution in the entire drainage basin of the Baltic Sea is increased.

The reunification of the two German States opens new possibilities for a reorganization of the Baltic research programme and a new division of labour in the new Germany. The Institut für Meereskunde in Warnemünde, in the former German Democratic Republic, for example, will be the prospective institute for Baltic oceanography. The Institut für Meereskunde in Kiel, on the other hand, could assume the full responsibility for global oceanographic research.

Summing up, recent political development raises hopes for improved intergovernmental cooperation in the Baltic region, including a development programme, with HELCOM providing financial and logistic support for the eastern countries of the region. The "Mediterranean Blue Plan" could serve as a model to support this.

This brief and fragmentary overview of international cooperation in the Baltic region shows that many problems still await solution. However, there is the hope that efforts will continue in the best tradition of international marine science cooperation, and the political and socio-economic development in the eastern part of the Baltic region will open new horizons of cooperation in science and technology, so that once more the Baltic region will play a leading role for the benefit of the ocean and the peoples living on its shores.

References

Babenerd, B., and T. Meyerhöfer. "Studie zum Fischsterben in der Kieler Förde im Oktober 1988." Forschungsvorhaben Wasser 102 (1988), no. 4: 234.

Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission - Helsinki Commission. "Second Periodic Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea, 1984-1988; General Conclusions." Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings, No. 35 A, 1990.

Boczek, B.A. "The Baltic region in its historical context." In: Westing, A.H., ed. Comprehensive security for the Baltic. PRIO, UNEP, SAGE publications: 1989, 23-34.

Boxer, B. (1982) "Mediterranean pollution: problem and response." Ocean Development & International Law 10 (1982): 315-356.

Broms, B. "Multilateral agreements in the Baltic region." In: Westing, A.H., ed. Comprehensive security for the Baltic. PRIO, UNEP, SAGE publications: 1989, 62-71.

Ehlers, P. Marine scientific cooperation in the framework of the Helsinki Commission. Kieler Meeresforschungen, Institut für Meereskunde an der Universität Kiel. Sonderheft No. 6; The Baltic Sea Environment, 1988.

Gebremedhin, N. "Lessons from the UNEP Regional Seas Programme." In: Westing, A.H., ed. Comprehensive security for the Baltic. PRIO, UNEP, SAGE publications: 1989, 90-98.

Jenisch, U. "Die Ostsee als Wirtschafts und Lebensraum. Wirtschaft, Umweltschutz, Seerecht." German Yearbook of International Law, vol 33, 1991, 349-382.

Kremling, K. "Dissolved trace metals in waters." In: First Periodic Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea area, 1980-1985. Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings, 17B, 1987, 209-219.

O'Dell, A. Scandinavian World. London: Longmans, Green, 1957.

Voigt, K. "The Baltic Sea - pollution problems and natural environmental changes." In: Richardson, J.G., ed. Managing the Ocean: Resources, Research, Law. Mt Airy (USA): Lomond Publications, 1986, 159-167.

Zmudzinski, L. "Environmental quality in the Baltic region." In: Westing, A.H., ed. Comprehensive security for the Baltic. PRIO, UNEP, SAGE publications: 1989, 46-53.

The Indian Ocean Marine Affairs Cooperation (IOMAC) (Hiran W. Jayewardene)

Introduction

Wherever the intensity of human activity has increased, the emergence of management arrangements has been a prerequisite for rational utilization of such areas and their resources. So, in the international field, whether it be outer space, the polar regions or the deep ocean regions, international cooperative arrangements have evolved to circumscribe the limits of individual action and provide for cooperative use and joint management. Also, in the area of ocean space - the oceans - it may be seen as inevitable that intergovernmental arrangements would eventually develop as a basis for rational management.

In such a context, the process of Indian Ocean Marine Affairs Cooperation (IOMAC) may be seen as a pioneering ocean management movement initiated by countries of the region, joined by extra-regional user states. For reasons of comprehensiveness and effectiveness, IOMAC was founded on the concept of integrating relevant management disciplines in mandated fields, as well as integrating relevant national, regional, and global institutional elements in the regional management framework.

In furtherance of the primary commitment for the realization of the promised benefits to governments from the new ocean regime, IOMAC has consistently emphasized training as an essential tool in advancing national capabilities in the requisite fields of marine affairs. This would be essential for bringing about a true integration of the ocean sector in national development strategies.

Inspired by recognition of the finite character of the adjacent ocean and its resources, African and Asian states united in the context of a characterization of the Indian Ocean as the "village pond" in the largely underdeveloped African-Asian region of the world. In IOMAC the Indian Ocean was then seen as a unifying rather than a dividing medium as it had appeared before. In addition to promoting cooperation between Indian Ocean States and entities outside the region, including technologically-advanced States and international organizations, IOMAC since its inception, has opened new vistas on regional cooperation and facilitated the broadening of intra-regional contacts which promote closer cooperation between African and Asian countries on a regular basis. In the future, such contacts could provide the platform on which closer integration of the rim community could be forged.

Already, a number of far-reaching management measures for the ocean, such as its Declaration as a Sanctuary for Whales for All Time, Banning of Large-scale Drift Nets, Declaration of a New Era of Indian Ocean Exploration, Initiation of Process Leading to the Establishment of an Indian Ocean Tuna Management framework, or establishment of a regional network of focal points for marine affairs, represent significant progress by IOMAC in bringing about collective ocean management in the region.

Background

1 Institutions for ocean management

Intergovernmental institutional arrangements for managing various aspects of ocean activities have evolved from time to time. Fisheries institutions such as WECAFC, IATTC, CECAF, ICCAT, FFA, and IOFC have developed mandates for specific regions and/or species. Conventional regimes have evolved in respect of environmental management of specific sea areas, as in the case of the Baltic Sea Convention or the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean. Under UNEP a number of "Regional Seas" environmental programmes have been established. In the field of marine scientific research, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) has a number of regional affiliates such as IOCINDIO, IOCARIBE, and WESTPAC.

The deliberations in the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea and the resultant 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, provided for a number of institutional arrangements ranging from the International Seabed Authority (part XI) through the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (part XV) to the Regional and National Marine Scientific and Technological Centres (arts 275-277). While the provisions of the first two have attracted considerable international attention since the conclusion of the Convention (as in the deliberations in the Preparatory Commission), the last has remained in relative obscurity.

In the more traditional areas of marine activity such as the delineation of regimes, jurisdiction, marine research, and resource utilization - areas of immediate practical relevance to developing countries - there has been only limited activity in terms of efforts to realize the benefits of the 1982 Convention and to advance requisite national skills. Consequently, there have been no major institutional developments in this area. As noted above, the only directly relevant institutional arrangements envisaged under the Convention - although limited in scope to scientific and technological aspects - have not been utilized in the preparatory and post-Conference processes preceding entry into force.

IOMAC is perhaps the only regional initiative of its kind to have originated in the UNCLOS process. The very title of IOMAC-I: the First Conference which established the framework of IOMAC in 1985, was cast "in the context of the New Ocean Regime" - obviously referring to the regime ushered in by UNCLOS III.

The frequent references in the text of the 1982 Convention, especially in the context of regional cooperation, has drawn the interpretation that "an undertaking to cooperate is also an undertaking to act". (Pinto 1988) More recently, the ongoing international deliberations on the regime of the high seas has manifested a trend towards res communis and further development of the thesis on the obligatory character of international cooperation in its use and management.

2 Marine/ocean affairs: The new management discipline

One of the remarkable, but often overlooked, aspects of UNCLOS III was the marshalling of multi-disciplinary expertise through national delegations for confronting a myriad of assorted problems and issues in areas such as fisheries, oceanography, geology, geography, marine technology, finance, and economics - apart from the central legal discipline. Nevertheless, the process of negotiations - perhaps somewhat clouded by immediate issues of jurisdiction and the politically challenging task of completing part XI - possibly detracted from the Conference reflecting that experience in full. Hence, we have in articles 275-277, an acknowledgment of the role of marine science and technology. Even at the end of the Conference, "science and technology" was still seen as the essential discipline as emphasized in the Group of 77-inspired "Resolution on the Development of Marine Scientific and Technological Capabilities" - one of the resolutions appended to the Final Act of the Conference as annex VI. While some grappled with nomenclature such as "oceanology," it was left to developments in the aftermath of the Conference to give recognition to the broader concept of "marine affairs" as the general discipline on which ocean management of the future was to be founded. The International Ocean Institute (IOI) Training Programmes in marine affairs for developing countries and IOMAC, were perhaps the forerunners of this new approach to the oceans. The subsequent designation of the Office/Division of Ocean Affairs and Law of the Sea under the Secretary-General of the United Nations not only gave high-level status to the Law of the Sea and related matters, it also gave the formal endorsement of the United Nations to the new management concept for the oceans.

"Marine affairs" encompasses the range of ocean-related disciplines in an interdisciplinary framework. However, there is no precise content of general acceptability, the scope being determined by a particular mandate. In the case of IOMAC, six main areas of activity have been identified, namely, marine science technology and ocean services; living resources; non-living resources; ocean law policy and management; marine transport and communications, and the marine environment. By design, the IOMAC mandate was limited to the peaceful uses of the ocean.

3 IOMAC - The Indian Ocean Management Initiative

IOMAC developed from informal consultations in the closing stages of the Third Law of the Sea Conference regarding developing country perspectives on the follow-up to the Conference and realization of its aims for their benefit. Many countries were slow to recognize that mere assertion of rights in respect of vast sea areas and offshore resource potential would not endow them with those benefits. The principal challenge then, as it is now, was the effective integration of the marine dimension in national development strategies. In the Indian Ocean there was, initially, a need to assess the state of activities and identify national priorities and requisite measures for advancement in the marine sector. Above all, there was a necessity to determine a suitable forum for such deliberations. Several rounds of initial discussions in the Asian-African Legal Consultative Committee (AALCC) which provided the only appropriate general forum spanning the Indian Ocean - soon revealed the need for a dedicated forum within which Indian Ocean marine affairs could be properly addressed. With encouragement from a core-group of countries pledging their support for an Indian Ocean Conference, the Government of Sri Lanka which had initiated the discussions and studies on the Indian Ocean in AALCC in 1981, announced the convening of the First Conference on Economic Scientific and Technical Cooperation in the Indian Ocean in Marine Affairs in the context of the New Ocean Regime (IOMAC-I) in Colombo in July 1985. The Conference was preceded by an inter-agency consultation convened in May 1985 by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the United Nations for the Law of the Sea for coordinating UN agency support to the Conference, and an Intergovernmental Preparatory Meeting in Colombo in June 1985.

4 Background, history and basic aims

IOMAC was founded on the following three basic objectives which guided the First Conference:

a. Create an awareness regarding the Indian Ocean, its resources and potential for the development of the states of the region, and furthering cooperation among them, as well as with other states active in the region, bearing in mind the new ocean regime embodied in the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

b. Provide a forum where Indian Ocean states and other interested nations could review the state of the economic uses of the Indian Ocean and its resources and related activities, including those undertaken within the framework of intergovernmental organizations, and identifying fields in which they would benefit from enhanced international cooperation, coordination, and concerted actions.

c. Adopt a strategy for enhancing the national development of the Indian Ocean states through the integration of ocean-related activities in their respective development process, and a policy of integrated ocean management through a regular and continuing dialogue and cooperative international/regional action with particular emphasis on technical cooperation among developing countries.

The First Conference commenced in July 1985 with a Consultative Phase (15-20 July 1985) and concluded with a Final Phase of Meetings of Experts and Officials followed by the Ministerial-level Meeting (26-28 January 1987), both Phases of the Conference being held in Colombo, Sri Lanka. The first meeting of the IOMAC Standing Committee was held in Colombo on 28 January 1987 upon conclusion of the Conference. Since then the Standing Committee has had six other Meetings, with the Seventh Meeting of the Committee being held in July 1991. With the exception of the Sixth Meeting of the Committee which was held in Arusha, Tanzania, in conjunction with the Second Conference (IOMAC II) all Meetings of the Committee have been held in Colombo as the seat of the Secretariat. The Second Conference took place in Arusha, Tanzania, 3-7 September 1990.

Over 35 States from the Indian Ocean region and outside have participated in IOMAC activities together with 38 international organizations, offices and entities of the United Nations system, and other governmental and non-governmental organizations and entities.

As an exercise in the development of international organizations, IOMAC is characterized by a functional approach which preceded the process of formalization culminating in the adoption of the Arusha Agreement on the Organization for Indian Ocean Marine Affairs Cooperation of 1990. In an era of international endeavour based on a new approach to integrated marine affairs management, this practical approach has helped governments and organizations to participate, experience, and understand the nature and scope of such a framework for cooperation. This process of programme development and institutional consolidation was principally supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

At present the Arusha Agreement has been signed by nine countries (Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania) and ratified by five (Indonesia, Mauritius, Mozambique, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka). Eight ratifications would be needed for entry-into-force. In the meantime, the IOMAC Technical Cooperation Group has begun to be activated following the Arusha Resolution, and a number of IOMAC activities, including the IOMAC-IOI Training Programme, are being implemented.

The organizational framework for Indian Ocean marine affairs cooperation

1 Principles of cooperation

The main task of the First Conference at its Consultative Meeting in July 1985, as preceded by the Preparatory Meeting in June of that year, was to give form and content to the basic concept of cooperation underlying the objectives of association of IOMAC. The IOMAC Declaration adopted by the Ministerial-level Final Phase of the First Conference in January 1987 set out the Framework of Cooperation in the form of an elaboration of the principles of IOMAC. These principles deal inter alia with integration of the marine sector into national development strategies; rights and needs of the land-locked and geographically disadvantaged States; acquisition and dissemination of information; harmonization and strengthening of management arrangements; designation of national focal points; development of maritime transport services; cooperation within international organizations; cooperation at international conferences; operational arrangements; and action to implement. The Second Conference in Arusha in 1990, reviewed the 1987 principles, and assigned the matter to the Standing Committee for further consideration.

2 Membership and participation

Participation in IOMAC since the First Conference has been guided by objective criteria based on the practice of the General Assembly of the United Nations in the Ad Hoc Committee on the Declaration of the Indian Ocean as a Zone of Peace. This provides for the following categories: 1 Indian Ocean States - a littoral States, and b hinterland States; and 2 major maritime users.

Considerable debate and discussion has taken place with regard to the inclusion of the latter category of Major Maritime Users (MMUs). Since the area coming within the purview of the organization includes and extends beyond the limits of national jurisdiction to encompass the high seas, it is arguable that an effort to move to coastal state management of the ocean as a whole, while excluding other users with legitimate rights therein, would tend to go in the direction of creeping jurisdiction and a revival of mare clausum. At the same time, there is no doubt of some concern that developing country interests would be subjugated in a framework also accommodating developed countries making up the category of MMUs. Sometimes the issue is also cast as a political bogey in the context of intra-regional strategic perceptions. On the other hand, some MMUs have argued that the MMU claim of interests may not only be equal to, but could even surpass that of coastal States in terms of areal extent and intensity of user activities. The concern regarding MMUs would appear to be greatly diminished in the light of the reality of day-to-day intercourse with developed countries, and the growing realization of the need for shedding post-colonial antipathy, interdependence, reduction of international tension, and building mutual confidence through cooperation. IOMAC has gone some way towards building such confidence through the mechanism of the Technical Cooperation Group (TCG). At present Australia, Bangladesh, China, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kenya, Malawi, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, The Netherlands, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States, and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) are participating in the TCG.

In fact, precedents of developed country participation in other regional organizations, and even the Indian Ocean Fishery Commission (IOFC), and present discussions on an Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), would tend to recognize the value of accommodating all principal actors in management. An ancillary issue is the claim of some MMUs for recognition as littoral States on account of territorial possession in the Indian Ocean.

In Arusha, the IOMAC II Resolution adopting the constituent Agreement for the Organization "considered that at this stage membership in the Organization should be open only to coastal and hinterland States of the Indian Ocean" and further considered it "desirable that States other than coastal nor hinterland States of the Indian Ocean and particularly such states as are active in the Indian Ocean, should also participate in the activities of the Organization for purposes of ensuring the widest possible international cooperation." The Conference requested the Standing Committee through the Secretary-General to undertake consultations with States that are not coastal or hinterland states of the Indian Ocean with respect to their participation in or cooperation with IOMAC.

The following States from the Indian Ocean region have participated in IOMAC: Arab Republic, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Comoros Islands, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kenya, Kuwait, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Seychelles, Singapore, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Thailand, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

3 Institutional framework

The institutional framework of IOMAC is comprised of the following elements: the Conference which functions as the plenary, the Standing Committee which is the executive body, the Technical Cooperation Group (TCG) providing for cooperative exchanges with developed countries from outside the region, and the Secretariat which performs the regular functions of such a body. In addition, IOMAC has put into place a Network of IOMAC Focal Points in governments within the region and outside, as well as in participating international organizations.

4 IOMAC Conference and Chairmanship

At the Final Session of the First Conference (IOMAC I) in January 1987, the Conference requested the Committee to make arrangements to convene the next meeting of the Conference preferably within two years but not later than January 1990. The Second Conference (IOMAC II) was held in Arusha, Tanzania in September 1990. The venue and date for the Third Conference (IOMAC III) to be held in 1995 is to be decided by the Standing Committee.

The Chairmanship of the Conference passed from Sri Lanka which had hosted the First Conference, to Tanzania - the host country for IOMAC II thus setting a precedent for rotation of the Chairmanship in accordance with the practice of certain other organizations such as the Non-aligned Movement (NAM).

5 The Standing Committee

The Standing Committee was established in 1987 by the First Conference. It was originally envisaged that the Committee would initially consist of 10 members nominated by the Conference to represent the major geographical areas and principal ocean-related interests (that is, landlocked, geographically disadvantaged, mainland coastal, and archipelagic States). They would hold office inter-sessionally up to the next IOMAC Conference. The Conference provided that the Committee shall be open-ended and shall meet as often as necessary for the performance of its functions and shall determine procedures, the agenda, and venue of its meeting. The Conference established the Standing Committee with primary responsibility for taking action as may be necessary for policy level guidance on the implementation of the Programme and Plan of Action and furthering cooperation through the framework of IOMAC.

Participation in the Standing Committee very soon surpassed the numbers envisaged by the First Conference with 17 participants at the initial meeting in January 1987 (regarded as the original Members of the Committee), which has progressively increased in participation through 15 (in 1987), 21 (in 1988), 22 (in 1989), 25 (in 1990), and 28 (in July 1991). The Committee meetings in 1992 and 1993 were equally very well attended.

Article 8 of the Arusha Agreement governs the Standing Committee as follows:

COMPOSITION

1. The Conference shall determine the size and elect members of the Committee, from amongst the Members of the Organization, and shall endeavour to ensure that the major geographical areas and the principal ocean-related interests (namely, landlocked, geographically disadvantaged, mainland, coastal and archipelagic) shall be represented in the Committee.

FUNCTIONS

2. The Committee which shall be the executive body of the Organization shall:

a. Provide the necessary policy guidance for the implementation of the Programme of Cooperation and Plan of Action of the Organization, and for the furtherance of cooperation through the framework of the Organization.

b. Consider the implementation of decisions taken by the Conference.

c. Supervise the administration and finances of the Organization.

d. Submit to the Conference, for its approval, the budget estimates and accounts of the Organization, together with comments and recommendations.

e. Submit to the Conference, for its approval, proposals for programmes and activities of the Organization.

f. Authorize the Secretary-General to take whatever steps the Committee considers necessary for achieving the objectives of the Organization.

g. Establish its rules of procedure except as otherwise provided in this Agreement.

h. Exercise such other functions as may be referred to it by the Conference.

MEETINGS AND PROCEDURE

a. The Committee shall meet in regular session once a year.

b. The Committee shall meet in special session whenever a majority of the members of the Committee request the convening of a special session.

c. A quorum for meetings of the Committee shall be two-thirds of the members of the Committee.

d. The Committee shall elect a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman.

e. Members of the Organization not elected to the Committee may participate at its meetings without a vote.

f. The Committee shall endeavour to reach its decisions by consensus. Where consensus is not possible, decisions of the Committee shall, unless otherwise provided in this Agreement, be made by a majority of its members present and voting.

g. Representatives of governments not members of the Organization, representatives of the United Nations and the appropriate agencies and bodies of the United Nations, representatives of such other international and national governmental and non governmental organizations as the Committee may deem appropriate, and experts in fields of interest to the Committee may be invited to attend meetings of the Committee as observers. If one-third of the members of the Organization objects to the invitation of an observer to the Committee that observer shall not be invited thereafter.

In practice, the meetings of the Committee held on an annual basis, has created a regional forum which brings a growing number of delegates and experts from Asian, Arab and African States together regularly, and has helped create new professional and personal ties within the region. The Committee's deliberations provide participating states and other entities an opportunity to review and maintain an overview of activities in the respective sectors of marine affairs in the region, and to plan, implement, and monitor various cooperative activities. The concurrent meetings of the Technical Cooperation Group (TCG), which is becoming more active, has also served to focus greater attention on the meetings and work of the Committee.

6 The Secretariat

Since the Preparatory Phase of the First Conference the Government of Sri Lanka has provided host facilities for the Secretariat. At the Second Standing Committee Meeting in 1987 the Committee approved the provision of an independent and permanent location for the Secretariat in Colombo. For the purpose of formalizing these arrangements and securing the appropriate host facilities, in addition to facilities pledged to the Committee, a host facilities agreement between the Secretariat and the Government of Sri Lanka will give effect to these decisions.

Article 9 of the Arusha Agreement provides for the Secretariat composed of the Secretary-General, who shall be the chief administrative officer of the Organization, and such staff as the Organization may require.

The Secretary-General shall, as chief administrative officer, be responsible, under the guidance of the Committee, for the administration of the Organization and its programmes. The provisions detail the functions of the Secretary-General and provide, inter alia, that he shall ensure that the Organization shall be an effective and dynamic channel of cooperation in marine affairs in the Indian Ocean.

7 The Technical Cooperation Group (TCG)

At the Second Standing Committee Meeting it was decided, inter alia, to establish a Technical Cooperation Group which would provide for the participation of States with advanced capabilities in marine affairs and also prospective donor States. Accordingly, the Secretariat identified and invited such countries to be associated with the Standing Committee at its future meetings with a view to jointly identifying areas of possible cooperation and procedures for interaction. The creation of this Group in 1988 has provided a forum for a regular dialogue between Indian Ocean States and participating technologically advanced States interested in the Indian Ocean. Initial participation of these countries essentially as observers, has gradually progressed to a more active level of contact.

8 Network of focal points

It is required that participating States of IOMAC should designate and notify other participating States the national entity primarily responsible for coordination of its marine activities and the maintenance of marine affairs cooperation on the regional and global levels through a network of such entities. This process of establishing an international network of focal points within the Indian Ocean and globally has been underway since the completion of the First Conference in 1987. Both States and international organizations have responded to the formal communication from the Secretariat requesting the early designation of focal points. The Secretariat maintains regular contact with governments through their respective national focal points. Communications relating to the announcements of IOMAC meetings, workshops, training programmes and other activities, are regular items of such contact.

9 Cooperation with international organization

Since the inter-agency consultations in Geneva in May 1985 which preceded even the First Conference, the IOMAC process has evolved in very close cooperation with international organizations concerned with marine activities, in particular, the United Nations and other interested organizations.

The following 38 entities have so far been associated with IOMAC activities:

Asian-African Legal Consultative Committee (AALCC)
Commonwealth Secretariat
Division of Global and Interregional Projects, UNDP
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO)
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
International Centre for Ocean Development (ICOD)
International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB)
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
International Ocean Institute (IOI)
International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
International Whaling Commission (IWC)
Issue-based Indian Ocean Network (IBION)
Law of the Sea Institute (LSI)
Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea (NILOS)
Office of the Special Representative
Organization of African Unity (OAU)
Project Jonah (Australia)
Regional Bureau for Africa, UNDP
Regional Bureau for Asia and the Pacific, UNDP
UN Ad hoc Committee of the Indian Ocean Peace Zone
UN Department of Political and Security Council Affairs
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
UN Division for Outer Space Affairs
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA)
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
UN International Economic and Social Affairs Department
UN Legal Counsel
UN Division of Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea
UN Revolving Fund for Natural Resources Exploration
United Nations University
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

Programmes and activities

The IOMAC programme of cooperation was developed on the basis of the identification of national priorities at the Preparatory Meeting in June 1985, and deliberations thereon at the Consultative and Final Phases of the Conference in July 1985 and January 1987. In view of the considerable range of varying national requirements and wide scope of activities envisaged, it was found necessary to draw from the programme salient items of common interest which were brought together in a more focused plan of action. For purposes of practical implementation the Secretariat prepares and implements a work programme under the guidance of the Standing Committee.

1 The programme of cooperation

The programme of cooperation is based on the deliberations of the Consultative Phase of the First Conference and provides an identification of areas for cooperation in respect of each of the principal sectors of IOMAC activity. The Second Conference reviewed the programme of cooperation and provided an appraisal and supplementary guidelines for future activities.

2 Plan of action

In the plan of action, specific areas of cooperation are identified for implementation on an immediate, medium- or long-term basis. The First Conference noted that certain items for immediate implementation could of necessity also have a medium- and/or long-term character. It was further provided that elements of the programme of cooperation would be drawn on from time to time in the context of implementation of the plan of action for purposes of further elaboration and augmentation thereof under the aegis of the Standing Committee and in the context of the framework for cooperation.

3 Work programme

Rapid implementation of a wide-ranging work programme has been a major achievement of IOMAC. Initiation of a number of new activities in areas not fully addressed by earlier and existing programmes as well as organizational mandates has served to demonstrate the usefulness and effectiveness of a collective regional undertaking committed to serving national needs. IOMAC has moved to organize comprehensive programmes of activity in each of the principle sectors through expert meetings followed by practical measures.

One of the earliest undertakings of IOMAC in the technical sphere was with regard to introducing space technology applications to marine resources. Undertaken in collaboration with the Outer Space Affairs Division of the United Nations, and later the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) of Pakistan, a series of preparatory technical meetings paved the way for the region. It is interesting that IOMAC's first venture in building national capabilities was in what is regarded as a high-technology area, rather than in a basic discipline such as marine science. In a way, to borrow a phrase, it is perhaps to "leap-frog into the future" and may inspire some confidence for many developing States in the region that are late starters in marine affairs.

One of the motivating factors for IOMAC was an unsuccessful effort to build a CCOP (Committee for Coordination of Offshore Prospecting for Mineral Resources) in the Indian Ocean, as in the case of the very successful organizations of this sort presently operating in East Asia and the South Pacific. Although IOMAC emerged with wider aims, the improved climate for cooperation in the marine sector was brought about by greater awareness of the Ocean's resource potential and paved the way for an unprecedented mandate for initiating cooperative activities in respect of nonliving resources, at the IOMAC Technical Group on Offshore Prospecting for Mineral Resources in the Indian Ocean held in Karachi, in July 1988.

The following are the salient aspects of IOMAC activities in each of the principal sectors in terms of organizing for work and implementing activities:

MARINE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND OCEAN SERVICES. "A New Era of Indian Ocean Exploration": On a proposal made by Tanzania, the Conference adopted the Resolution on a New Era of Indian Ocean Exploration which called for a systematic, coordinated long-term collective international effort to explore the Indian Ocean along the lines of the International Indian Ocean Expedition (1962-1965). However, this new effort was required to concentrate on near-shore areas and to give emphasis to the needs of developing States, as well as to secure their participation.

Taken in the light of the seaward extension of national jurisdiction and the new framework for the conduct of marine scientific research under the Law of the Sea Convention of 1982, the IOMAC Declaration of a New Era of Indian Ocean Exploration may go some way in providing reassurance to major nations conducting marine scientific research, as much as it seeks to strengthen developing Indian Ocean states capabilities in this field.

As a sequel to the Arusha Declaration of a New Era of Marine Science, a major IOMAC international marine science symposium was held in 1992. This provided an opportunity to review existing programmes, national priorities and new avenues for cooperative activities in the region.

Space Technology Applications: In addition to the important IOMAC-UN Technical Workshops held in Colombo (1986) and in Karachi (1989), IOMAC has prepared a manual on Remote Sensing Applications for the Indian Ocean region, and is initiating a number of pilot projects, as well as a training workshop held in the region in 1992.

LIVING RESOURCES. Tuna resources: The IOMAC I Preparatory Meeting as well as the First Conference at its Consultative Phase in 1985, and the Final Phase in 1987, for the first time took cognizance at intergovernmental level of the rapid development of a major industrial-scale distant water tuna fishery in the Indian Ocean in the early 1980s, and called for the early establishment of an appropriate regulatory body for management of Indian Ocean tuna.

Subsequent IOMAC meetings, especially at the Standing Committee, have kept relevant developments under review, and have acted as a catalyst for deliberations on the establishment of such a body now likely to emerge under the auspices of FAO in the form of the proposed Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC). In January 1989 a group of IOMAC fisheries and legal experts met in Jakarta to prepare common positions for intergovernmental deliberations on the subject. In this context, IOMAC has consistently maintained the importance to be attached to the participation of distant water fishing nations in a future management regime that would ensure its effectiveness, as well as emphasized the importance of providing for the increased participation of developing Indian Ocean States in harnessing the resource.

IOMAC Declaration banning the use of large-scale drift nets: The Seventh Meeting of the IOMAC Standing Committee adopted a Declaration banning the use of large-scale drift nets in the Indian Ocean.

NON-LIVING RESOURCES. Offshore prospecting for mineral resources: In July 1988 the IOMAC Meeting on Offshore Prospecting for Mineral Resources in the Indian Ocean hosted by the Government of Pakistan in Karachi, generated a strong intergovernmental mandate for initiating a programme of cooperation in this field, with the collaboration and assistance of states with technologically advanced capabilities in this field.

INDIAN OCEAN LAW, POLICY, AND MANAGEMENT. Marine Affairs Management Training: IOMAC regularly conducts marine affairs management training in collaboration with the International Ocean Institute (IOI). The annual IOMAC-IOI Marine Affairs Training Programmes have been held in Arusha, Kuala Lumpur, Cairo, and Mauritius. Each 10-week course accommodates 25 participants from developing Indian Ocean States and provides training in integrated management to mid-level career officers responsible for managing marine activities in their countries.

MARITIME TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS. Formation of an Association of Shipping and Port Authorities in the Indian Ocean: The Second Conference endorsed a number of proposals made by the IOMAC Meeting of Experts in Shipping and Port Development hosted by the Government of Kenya and held in Mombasa in August 1990. A number of important recommendations made by the meeting for promoting cooperation in shipping and port development were endorsed by the Second Conference. In July 1991, the Seventh Meeting of the Standing Committee adopted and recommended for governmental approval, terms of reference for the IOMAC Association of Shipping and Port Authorities. It is envisaged that some of the cooperative measures identified would be taken up for implementation by the Association.

MARINE ENVIRONMENT. Dumping of hazardous waste and toxic materials; pollution of the sea by oil; and potential adverse impact on the marine environment of proposed deep seabed mining are the relevant issues. In 1988, the third meeting of the IOMAC Standing Committee reviewed these specific aspects of concern to Indian Ocean countries and recommended that the Secretary-General identify an effective mechanism to monitor and develop regional capabilities of coastal States for prevention of such environmental hazards with assistance from the competent international agencies.

Establishment of a regional network for marine pollution monitoring: Following consultations between IMO and the IOMAC Secretariat, the Seventh Meeting of the Standing Committee requested the Secretariat to take necessary steps in consultation with IMO, UNEP and other interested entities for the early establishment of an Indian Ocean network.

Indian Ocean Environment Conference: Presently preparatory work is under way for the convening of the IOMAC Indian Ocean Environment Conference. The Conference will review the health of the Indian Ocean, identify environmental problems, and determine a common programme for cooperation in this field.

INTERESTS AND NEEDS OF LAND-LOCKED STATES. Accommodation of the interests of land-locked nations in the context of marine affairs was recognized very early by IOMAC as a logical corollary to the rights of land-locked countries in respect of access to living resources, and access to and from the sea. Although a technical meeting on the subject was planned under the joint coordination of Uganda and Nepal, this has been deferred in favour of an expert study on key issues and current trends.

TRAINING, INFORMATION, AND OTHER FIELDS RELEVANT TO COOPERATION IN MARINE AFFAIRS. Indian Ocean Marine Affairs and Aquatic Resources Information System (IO-MAARIS): Work on the establishment of IO-MAARIS commenced in 1987, at the Second Meeting of the Standing Committee. The Committee reviewed and endorsed the IOMAC/UNCTAD/UNDP sponsored Mission Report which detailed three major components of the proposed system - i.e., the institutional element involving the creation of three nodes in the region as a first step; a training and educational element; and outputs element. The IOMAC Information Workshop held in Jakarta in February 1990 reviewed and identified a number of practical measures for putting into operation the proposed information system. At present the Secretariat publishes an Indian Ocean Newsletter which provides an update on IOMAC activities and other related developments.

Annex

IOMAC Work Programme 1986-1995

Date	Activity	Venue	Status/comments
1986
15-19 September	United Nations Regional Meeting of Experts on Space Technology Applications in the Indian Ocean Region.	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-1/ A/25
1987
26-28 January	First Conference on Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation in Marine Affairs in the Indian Ocean in the Context of the New Ocean Regime(IOMAC-1 )	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-1/ A/27
2 February-10 April	IOI Training Programme in Management and Conservation of Marine Resources - Class C Regional Cooperation and Development in the Indian Ocean.	Arusha, Tanzania	Concluded
1988
11-14 July	First Meeting IOMAC Technical Group on Offshore Prospecting for Mineral Resources in the Indian Ocean.	Karachi, Pakistan	Concluded IOMAC/ TM-1/A/1 (Report) IOMAC/ TM-1/A/2 (Documents)
10 October-16 December	IOMAC-IOI Marine Affairs Training Programme	Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia	Concluded
22-24 November	IOMAC Standing Committee 3rd Meeting	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-1/ SC-3/9
1989
20-24 January	IOMAC Meeting of Legal and Fisheries Experts and Second Meeting on IOMAC Statutes	Jakarta Indonesia	Concluded Report No. IOMAC/ TM-2/A/1
2-6 July	UN/IOMAC Workshop on Oceanographic/Marine Space Information Systems	Karachi, Pakistan	Concluded Report No. IOMAC/ TM-3/A/1
17-21 July	IOMAC Standing Committee 4th Meeting	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-1/ SC-4/7
10 October-15 December	Second IOMAC-IOI Training Programme in Marine Affairs	Cairo, Egypt	Concluded
1990
5-9 February	IOMAC Information Workshop	Jakarta, Indonesia	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-1/ TM/4/5/Rev. 1
2-5 May	5th IOMAC Standing Committee Meeting	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-1/ SC-5/6/Rev. 1
27-31 August	Regional Workshop on the Development of Cooperative Arrangements among IOMAC Countries in the area of Shipping Ports, and Multi-modal Transport	Mombasa, Kenya	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-1/ TM-5/10
3-7 September	Second Conference on Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation in the Indian Ocean in the Context of the New Ocean Regime(IOMAC-II) and 6th Meeting of the IOMAC Standing Committee	Arusha, Tanzania	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-II A/10
1991
15-19 July	Seventh Meeting of the IOMAC Standing Committee	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-II/ SC/12/Rev. 1
7 October-13 December	Fifth IOMAC-IOI Training Programme in Marine Affairs	Mauritius	In progress
1992
19-23 October	International Scientific Workshop on Marine Scientific Cooperation on the Indian Ocean	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-II TM-6/1
26-30 October	Eighth Meeting of the IOMAC Standing Committee	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-II/ SC-8/14/Rev. 1
1993
12-19 November	Ninth Meeting of the IOMAC Standing Committee, Technical Cooperation Group (TCG) and the In augural Meeting of IOMAC Association of Shipping and Ports Authority	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Concluded Report No. IOMAC-II/ SC-9/13/Rev. 1
1994	Tenth Meeting of the IOMAC Standing Committee and the Second Meeting of IOMAC Shipping and Ports Authority	Colombo, Sri Lanka	Dates to be confirmed
1995	Third Conference on Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation in Marine Affairs in the Indian Ocean in the Context of the New Ocean Regime (IOMAC-III)		Dates and venue to be confirmed
	Indian Ocean Environment Conference		Dates and venue to be confirmed
	IOMAC-IOI Marine Affairs Training Programme	Indonesia	Dates to be confirmed

References

Kwiatkowska, B. "the Role of Regional Organisations in Development Cooperation in Marine Affairs" In Soons, A., ed. Implementation of the Law of the Sea Convention through International Institutions, Honolulu: Law of the Sea Institute (1990).

Pinto, M.C.W. Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation in the Indian Ocean. FAO (1988).

IOMAC Documentation:

Record of the First Conference (IOMAC-I/A/27) 26-28 January 1987
Record of the Second Conference (IOMAC-II/A/10) 3-7 September 1990

Agreement on the Organization for Indian Ocean Marine Affairs Cooperation,

Arusha, Tanzania (GA Doc. A/45/831) 7 December 1990

Consolidated Records of the Standing Committee (IOMAC-II/A/2) September 1990

Record of the Seventh Meeting of the Standing Committee (IOMAC-II/SC-7/12/Rev. 1) July 1991