Policy implications

Correcting gender bias in agricultural research
Provision of gender-disaggregated data
Farmer participatory research
Correcting gender bias in agricultural extension
Extension workers
Extension practices
Working towards women's strategic interests

While establishing the relevance of IPM to women farmers, the second section also revealed numerous factors which impede their participation in the development and utilization of IPM technologies. These include gender bias in agricultural research and extension, as well as specific constraints faced by women farmers as a result of gender discrimination at the social and political level. It has also been shown how women's exclusion from IPM projects can jeopardize the adoption and effectiveness of IPM technologies. The purpose of this final section will be to provide recommendations for the removal of gender barriers in IPM.

Correcting gender bias in agricultural research

Provision of gender-disaggregated data

The first requirement for correcting gender bias in agricultural research is the provision of reliable gender-disaggregated data. In the case of many surveys, questionnaires and interviews, much valuable information could be gained with minimum cost or effort, simply by indicating the gender of respondents. Conceptual biases which discriminate against women and produce inaccurate and gender-blind findings must also be corrected. Special measures, including (a) the recruitment of greater numbers of female enumerators, (b) the introduction of quotas to ensure the representative participation of female respondents, (c) gender-sensitivity training to ensure that appropriate concepts and methods are used, and (d) ensuring that relevant information is collected, may also be necessary. In addition to traditional methods of data collection and research, innovative methods of farmer participatory research offer even greater opportunity for effective interaction with women farmers.

Farmer participatory research

Models of farmer participatory research (FPR), (as outlined by Harwood, 1979; Rhoades and Booth, 1982; Chambers and Jiggins, 1986) are based on several fundamental 'reversals' of the assumptions and practices of formal agricultural research. In the words of Chambers (1979), FPR attempts to put farmers first and last in the process of agricultural research. Whereas formal research sets out to transfer knowledge and technology from the scientific laboratory to the farmer, FPR begins with the view that farmers have much to teach scientists and researchers, and that the starting point for agricultural research must be the knowledge, problems, analysis and priorities of farmers, not scientists. Technologies should be developed and tested not in isolation from farmers on research stations, but by farmers themselves, on their own fields, in collaboration with agricultural scientists and researchers acting as consultants and facilitators (Chambers, 1979).

Farmer participatory research is particularly well suited to the development of IPM strategies. Firstly, the importance which IPM attaches to the exploration and adaptation of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) of pests and pest management lends itself well to FPR methods. Secondly, IPM is an holistic approach which requires a detailed knowledge of local agro-ecosystems, and is better suited to experimentation in the field rather than within the confines of a research station. Finally, the real test of IPM technologies is whether or not farmers will use them. Adoption of new technologies is enhanced by a close understanding of farmers' perceptions, motivations and attitudes, and the active inclusion of farmers at every stage of the research process.

Farmer participatory research is especially relevant for women farmers because they figure disproportionately among the resource-poor, and because they are a group which has been particularly poorly served through formal research. Due to the nature of their particular crops and tasks, and the small scale of their land-holdings, women's agricultural activities and conditions are least likely to resemble those of national research stations. On-farm experimentation is much more likely to achieve productive results, as well as being better adapted to women's time and mobility constraints. Also, because there are so few female scientists in Africa, women's input towards 'science-driven' research is extremely limited. On the other hand, 'farmer-driven' research allows for the problems and priorities of large numbers of female farmers to be expressed.

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India (1991) provides a documented case of using FPR with women farmers in Medak district, Andhra Pradesh, in the development of pest-resistant varieties of pigeon pea. In the early stages of the project, farmers and scientists walked together through fields to assess the extent of damage caused by Helicoverpa armigera, the pest identified by farmers as a priority. ICRISAT then provided the farmers with four resistant varieties of pigeon peas for on-farm testing, along with farmers' local varieties. Once the testing was completed, a comparative evaluation of all varieties was carried out by groups of farmers using FPR methods. Quantification of comparison results was done through pairwise ranking and direct matrix ranking with the use of dust sketches, pebbles, seeds and twigs. An interesting result of the project was that the official variety which had been released by the state in 1989 scored high on agronomic criteria of pod production and pest resistance, but was rejected due to poor taste. In the end, farmers chose to grow a mix of local varieties and the new resistant varieties in order to maintain diversity and reduce risks (see Table 4).

The ICRISAT project demonstrated that poor, uneducated women farmers were able to provide a detailed diagnosis of the pest problem, outline a comprehensive set of relevant criteria for the acceptability of new varieties and carry out careful comparisons and evaluations in order to make optimum agricultural choices. ICRISAT researchers were able to assist in the process by matching new varieties to farmers' needs, facilitating the testing process and providing advice and support when needed.

Correcting gender bias in agricultural extension

Agricultural extension services have been widely criticized for their failure to reach and serve women farmers. Extension remains, however, the predominant process whereby farmers gain access to agricultural assistance and technological innovations. The following recommendations as to how extension services can be adapted to meet the needs of women farmers better are divided into two categories: one concerns extension workers, and the other extension practices.

Table 4 Matrix ranking of pigeon pea varieties by women farmers in Medak region, Anhdra Pradesh, India, 1990

Extension workers

The first recommendation is to recruit more women (especially local women) as extension workers. Evidence shows that the gender of the extension worker does matter, and that there is a strong positive correlation between reaching women farmers and having women on the extension team Jiggins, 1986). In some cases (e.g. traditional Muslim societies) it may be difficult or impossible for male extension workers to reach women farmers. Under such circumstances, the recruitment of women as extension agents is a necessity. Female extension workers may, more generally, prove less intimidating to women farmers, especially in the initial stages of contact, and serve as important role models. In a recent joint IPM project of the Department of Agriculture and the Centre for Women's Studies of the University of the Philippines, the importance of women researchers and extension workers as role models for female participants became evident. One of the women farmers contacted by the nearly all women team remarked:

Actually, to practice IPM is not difficult, but what is difficult for a farmer is how to get started. Personally, I thought it would interfere with my household responsibilities because we were requested to attend weekly meetings and training sessions... Then, I thought of the professional project staff who were likewise mothers and yet spent their Sunday afternoons with us, so I gave it a try and from then on I got adjusted to the situation. (Adalla and Hogue, 1990, pp 110-111)

Several governments and institutions have already adopted quotas or positive discrimination policies in an attempt to correct gender imbalances. Another way to promote gender equality is to accommodate better the specific problems which women workers face, such as constraints on time and mobility due to domestic responsibilities and difficulties of transportation (e.g. being prevented from driving a moped or travelling alone to remote areas). A longer-term goal must be to change the attitudes of those colleagues or clients who marginalize, patronize or attribute a lower status to women extension agents.

A second recommendation is gender sensitivity training for both male and female extension workers. The purpose of this training would be to engender an understanding and appreciation of the roles and responsibilities of women in agriculture, to build an awareness of women farmers' particular needs and priorities, to overcome gender-related stereotypes and biases and to learn better methods of reaching women farmers (e.g communication skills, sensitivity to time and mobility constraints, etc.). In the 1988 publication, Gender Issues in Farming Systems Research and Extension, Poats et al. conclude that gender sensitivity training for all agents is even more important in achieving positive results than the increased recruitment of female workers.

Extension practices

There is a debate over the relative advantages and disadvantages of establishing programmes and services for 'women only'. In some circumstances (e.g. Muslim societies) social custom may make it impossible for men and women to meet together or for a male extension worker to contact female farmers. It has also been argued that extension teams, made up exclusively of women, facilitate confidence, trust and open communication within the group and allow the common concerns and priorities of female farmers to be more effectively addressed. On the other hand, programmes for women only run the risk of being marginalized and perceived of as outside the area of concern of 'mainstream' development. Such programmes typically receive less priority, status and funding than 'mainstream' agricultural projects.

In 1986, the Mission de Developpement de la Province du Nord-Ouest (MIDENO) initiated a project to improve extension services to women in Cameroon's North West Province (Walker, 1990). Based on case-studies and field experimentation, MIDENO developed strategies which achieved impressive results in reaching women farmers. One of the areas of interest to MIDENO researchers was the relative importance of gender-specific extension services.

Originally, the project had an informal goal of recruiting equal numbers of male and female extension workers. In fact, female recruitment averaged approximately 20%; this did not meet the project goal, but compares favourably with other African extension services. Given these limited numbers of female workers, MIDENO opted for a strategy of short-term gender targeting. Under this system, groups of farmers were contacted initially by extension agents of the same gender. Once farmers were familiarized with the project goals and a sense of trust and credibility was established, it was found that both male and female agents (all of whom had received gender-sensitivity training) were able to work equally well with any group.

Given the continuing shortage of female extension workers and the difficulties associated with separate 'women's only' groups, MIDENO's strategy of mainstream gender-sensitivity training and short-term gender targeting seems both a feasible and effective recommendation. Obviously, however, each situation will vary according to different cultural, logistical and technical circumstances, and flexibility in gender policy must be maintained.

An additional recommendation forwarded by MIDENO is the use of contact groups rather than contact farmers. Group methods are increasingly used in agricultural research and extension for reasons of cost-effectiveness and for the benefits of group dynamics in eliciting ideas, sharing knowledge and validating information. Contact groups are particularly appropriate for women as they provide a socially acceptable form of contact with male extension agents, a supportive environment in which to develop communication and organizational skills and an opportunity for the engendering of group solidarity and collective action.

The process and criteria whereby farmers are selected to participate in extension programmes may inadvertently prevent the active involvement of women farmers. Criteria which require literacy, or exclude very small or remote plots of land are likely to jeopardize the participation of women farmers. Where the practice of working with male farmers only has been the norm, special measures, such as setting target numbers of female participants, ensuring that representative numbers of men and women are chosen as 'lead farmers' or 'information brokers', may be necessary. The MIDENO project found that asking agriculturally able female farmers to provide demonstration fields was especially effective in encouraging female participation and providing a valuable role model.

In order to ensure accessibility for women farmers, attention must be paid to the timing, location and organization of extension activities. The scheduling of meetings must take into account women's heavy daily time schedules and their longer working day. Due to mobility constraints, field-based activities and mobile training units (including travel into remote areas) are more likely to reach women farmers. Finally, organizational innovations, such as the provision of collective child-care, may enhance the ability of women farmers to participate in extension services.

On average, levels of formal education are lower among women than men. Women farmers are also less likely to speak any language other than the local dialect. The recruitment of extension staff who are fluent in regional languages and familiar with local practices is, therefore, especially important when working with women. Many innovative methods of communication (including illustrations, visual aids, role-playing etc.) and the use of various media such as video and radio have proved extremely effective in overcoming difficulties associated with illiteracy and other communication barriers.

Working towards women's strategic interests

Ultimately, issues of gender in IPM cannot be divorced from the question of discrimination against women on a more general scale. The constraints which women face in regard to IPM are inextricably linked to the gender division of labour, inequalities in access to information and resources and women's lack of power at the personal, social and political level. Women's equal access to IPM will be truly ensured only when women's strategic and political interests have been addressed.

This paper has found that although women farmers are potentially the main users of IPM technologies, numerous barriers exist which jeopardize their access and use of such technologies. The purpose of this paper has been to examine the relevance of gender issues in IPM. Although almost entirely absent from the existing literature on IPM, this paper has found that issues of gender have important implications for the creation, adoption and effective implementation of IPM technologies. In fact, women farmers are the principal agents of pest management on food crops in Africa.

Due to a neglect of gender, IPM may not only have lost out on a valuable source of indigenous technical knowledge, but has also failed to recognize and respond to the needs of female farmers who represent the majority of Africa's pest management agents. Efforts to include women in the development and utilization of IPM technologies will enrich and expand the field of IPM, and stand to improve the welfare of Africa's rural women and to increase the agricultural productivity of that continent.