Promotion of Equal Access of Girls to Science Education and Technical Education in Africa. Case for Uganda

E. LUGUJJO*

* Professeur, Faculty of Technology, Makerere University.

According to the 1991 Census, the population of Uganda was 16.9 million with an average annual growth of 2.5 percent. It is now estimated that the current population is about 20 million. The females constituted 51.0 percent of the population. Uganda's population is largely rural with about 90 percent of the people residing in the countryside. The country has a dominant informal economy and the population is mainly sustained by the largely subsistence agriculture with inherent low productivity and limited marketable surpluses.

STATUS OF GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SOCIAL LIFE

Girls and women in the rural area until the land for food, fetch water, collect firewood, look after children, and in some ethnic, tribes, they built houses. The men tend to concentrate more of their efforts in only cash crops cultivation and trades.

Uganda is a patrilineal society where, until recently women have been treated as inferior to men. However, because of recent positive government gender policies, the status of women is progressively being elevated, especially in the urban areas.

In the rural areas, girls and women are still subjected to inhuman treatment, cruelty and abuse. There is still an intrinsic perpetual concept that women keep house and raise children, men go out to work and have a position in society. This on the women side, degenerates into passive behaviour that translate into fear. Girls and women especially in the rural areas, tend to underestimate their own ability, especially in domains which are regarded as typically male preserves, a pattern which is again being perpetuated by lack of role models. Their counterparts in urban areas are engaged either in professional tasks or in some form of informal sector activities. Most girls go to schools and those who drop out of school find petty jobs. What are regarded as homes in urban areas tend to be centres of vibrant activities.

School

Before the introduction of formal schooling, every ethnic tribe had its own system of indigenous education which prepared everyone, without discrimination of sex to acquire the basic knowledge, skills and values needed for earning a living and living a life as sanctioned by society.

But with the introduction of formal school system, negligence of girls education became quite evident when most parents enrolled mainly boys in the newly introduced western-type of education. Even with the opening of some schools exclusively for girls, especially at the secondary and tertiary levels, enrolment of girls has remained low compared to that of boys. In urban centres however, enrolment of girls has picked up as the table below shows.

Table 1: Illiterate (%) of Population 10 Years and Above

	Female	Male	Both
Rural	59.3	39.5	49.6
Urban	23.7	14.3	19.2
National	51.1	39.5	46.0

Source: 1991, Population and Housing Census

The Community

Women at community level have been integrated into national development machinery through deliberate positive policies. By 1985, the Government's overall policy emphasized the removal of the impediments to women's effective participation in National Development. Currently, Government policy is directed at strengthening the position of women if the economy by raising the value and productivity of their labour and giving them access to and control over productive resources which include land, capital, credit, education and information.

Employment

Women and girls are mainly agricultural workers and this is the only occupational category in which female (51%) are more than the male (49%). Male dominance in the occupational categories of managers, professionals, technicians and machine operators is substantially higher in the urban areas. Females, however, dominate in clerical category.

A Survey conducted in 1994 revealed that while males and females are almost equally divided in population, the number of females in the formal sector employment was only 20 percent of the total. In categories of skilled workers, women share was 26 percent.

Gender - Related Policies

· There is a fully-fledged operational Ministry of Gender and Community Development.

· In 1994, Uganda became the first country in Africa to appoint a woman Vice-President.

· Out of 50 Government Ministers, 6 are women.

· Equality of status is included in the Constitution as one of the fundamental rights enjoyed by women.

· Out of 279 Parliamentarian, 53 are women.

· Under the 1995 Constitution of the Republic of Uganda, Article 180, dealing with Local Government Councils reserves one third (33%) of the membership of each local government to women.

· Women entering University are given additional 1.5 bonus weight to boost up their aggregate total.

· Introduction of UPE for four children per family in Jan. 1997.

These deliberate actions taken by Government have gone a long way in countering the factors that militate for women's absence in participation in National Development.

PERSPECTIVES FOR THE ROLE OF GIRLS AND WOMEN IN SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Girls and women constitute a large reservoir of potential for national development. What are required are clear deliberate policies and actions to organise, educate, promote, motivate and empower them to forge partnerships with men in the struggle to solve national problems. There is abundant evidence to the effect that what man can do, women can do also and sometimes even better! Women have so far excelled in politics, education, health, legal profession, and agriculture.

Women are now emerging as self-reliant individuals with equality of status in all spheres of activities. As pointed out, laws have been enacted to prevent them from exploitation. As their educational opportunities become enlarged, they will become more enlightened and their contribution to socio-economic development is assured. Society, too, is becoming greatly aware of the imperative need to bring them into the mainstream of socio-economic activity.

Having said that however, a recent study carried out in Kampala revealed that insubordination towards women managers in work places was a frequent occurrence. This was attributed to in-built traditional gender biases whereby boys are socialised to regard girls as less equals. It was also observed that the heavy workload of women hampered their growth and retarded their vertical mobility in the ranks. Because of this, women have limited access to information channels necessary for them to achieve steady progress in their careers.

CURRENT TRENDS IN EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN

Uganda's employment and poverty situation has not improved significantly despite a rapid growth of the economy in the last decade. Unemployment and under-employment prevail to a high extent in urban areas while high levels of under-employment prevails in rural areas.

According to the Uganda National Integrated Household Survey, 26 percent of women population is outside the labour force due to either being too young, old or disabled, while 21 percent are students and 29 percent are involved in household enterprises or duties. Only 23 percent of total women are either self employed, employers or employees, while less than 1 percent of the women are completely unemployed. The number of women in the managerial and professional occupation is low as shown in Annex 1.

Unemployment is more rampant among women and youth who are dropping out of schools or graduating from intermediate, secondary and tertiary education institutions. As I write now, Uganda has started to have unemployed graduates mainly in Humanities! The table below shows the Percentage Distribution of Employment by Sex and Occupation.

Table 2: Percentage Distribution of Employment by Sex and Occupation - 1988

Occupation	Government		Non-Government
	Male	Female	Male	Female
1. Administrator and Managers	94.2	5.8	90.6	9.4
2. Professionals	82.6	14.4	82.5	17.5
3. Technicians and associate Professionals	65.6	34.4	74.5	25.5
4. Clerks	78.0	22.0	52.1	47.9
5. Service and Sales Workers	79.0	21.0	63.8	36.2
6. Skilled Agriculture & Fisheries Workers	87.8	12.2	91.7	8.5
7. Crafts and related Occupations	93.8	6.2	96.9	3.1
8. Plant and Machine	93.2	6.8	94.6	5.4
9. Not Stated Operators	70.5	29.5	83.8	16.2
Total	73.4	26.6	74.7	25.3

Source: National Manpower Survey 1988

As per the 1987 Census of Civil Servants, the Ministry of Education was the biggest employer of women. The Ministry of Health came second as the employer of women civil servants. The Majority of the women were found in the technical and semi-professional occupations. The second area of female concentration was in the elementary occupation category. The professional occupational category recorded only 16.2 percent women as compared to 79.9 percent men. Ministries with the lowest concentration of female professionals were Ministry of Energy (none), Ministry of Works (5 women compared to 113 men), Ministry of finance (Audit) (none), and Ministry of Water and Mineral Development (2 women compared with 104 men).

It is generally believed that the position of female labour in the public sector employment has worsened as a result of Structural Adjustment measures, particularly retrenchment. The public sector retrenchment has affected the lower ranks of the occupational hierarchy, where most women are.

On the extreme end, a recent study carried out on the civil service found that the number of women in the top management positions is increasing, although women managers still suffer from discouraging and negative attitudes of their male colleagues and continue to juggle with their multiple roles! The causes have been discussed in section 1.2.

CURRENT TRENDS IN PARTICIPATION OF GIRLS IN SCIENCE SUBJECTS IN SCHOOL

Primary education is for children in the age group 6-13 years or for young people and adults who might have missed a chance to attend school earlier. The subjects taken include: mathematics, English, Science and Health Education and Social Studies. In this regard, therefore science is compulsory at this level. Science and Health education essentially includes the following units:

1. Our Environment
2. Changes in our environment
3. Crop husbandry
4. Animal Husbandry
5. Systems of the mammal
6. Our Health
7. Common Diseases
8. Air, Water, and weather
9. Food and Nutrition
10. Classification and Study of living things
11. The Flowering Plants
12. Measurement
13. Forms of Energy
14. Simple machines
15. Accidents and First Aid
16. Family health and Social Problems
17. Sanitation
18. Immunisation

At secondary education level, science is covered through comprehensive programmes in Physics, Chemistry and Biology and Mathematics. Technical subjects are also included. A science and Technical curriculum at secondary school level is shown in Annex 2. Participation of girls in Physics and Chemistry is still low. However, for the few girls who offer these subjects, especially in exclusively girls' schools perform very well and pursue technical and scientific careers.

Generally, Physics and Chemistry are done poorly, possibly because these subjects are taught theoretically due to lack of equipment and apparatus. Large number of students in class also hamper interactive tutorial approaches that would have identified weaker students for remedial lessons.

It is believed that career guidance coupled with intensive counselling, and role modes can sensitize girls towards physical sciences. This will improve girls' chances of joining science oriented professions.

The table below shows the percentage of Females and Males admitted in Makerere University in science - Oriented disciplines for the period 1988-1991.

Table 3: Percentage of Females and Males in Makerere University in Science 1988-91

Courses	1988		1989		1990		1991
	F	M	F	M	F	M	F	M
Medicine	20	80	27	73	28	72	34	66
Vet. Medicine	3	97	13	87	08	92	07	93
Engineering	11	89	07	93	11	89	17	83
Agriculture	31	69	20	80	12	88	22	78
Forestry	12	88	17	83	14	86	15	85
Statistics	12	88	10	90	26	74	15	85
Science	13	87	13	87	29	71	22	75
Dental Surgery	10	90	22	78	10	90	25	64
Pharmacy	40	60	30	70	30	70	36	64
Food Science	13	87	36	64	40	60	36	64
Architecture	-	-	-	-	10	90	29	71
Surveying	-	-	-	-	-	-	9	91
Science/Education	5	95	40	60	18	82	28	72

Source: Makerere University: Registar's Office.

At university level, Medicine and Food Science and Technology are among the subjects where women enrollments have grown in numbers over the past five years. The Engineering and Agricultural courses have a slower enrollment growth rates. In fact women enrollment for agriculture dropped from 31% in 1988 to 12% in 1991.

CURRENT TRENDS IN EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN TEACHING PROFESSION (PARTICULARLY IN SCIENCE EDUCATION°.

The Ministry of Education and Sports is the biggest employer of women in the Civil service. In fact with the introduction of Universal Primary Education in January 1997, retired teachers were recalled, and now women constitute a large percentage of the total teaching force in primary section. At this level, women teachers participate less in mathematics and science - based subjects. At secondary education level, women teachers participate more in biology and chemistry. In fact there is a dearth of role models in mathematics and physics. Table 4 shows the percentage of graduate women science teachers at Diploma and Degree levels for the period 1986-96

Table 4: Percentage of female participation in teaching profession at tertiary level

Year	BSC (Ed)	BA (Ed)	TTC	NTC
1986	10.8	30	44.6	18.9
1987	6.7	35	44.5	22.7
1988	8.9	36	45	22.7
1989	11.5	33	43.5	24.9
1990	4.9	38	-	-
1991	3.8	45	-	-
1992	4.1	38	-	-
1993	11	55	-	-
1994	18.3	53	-	-
1995	30.0	49	-	-
1996	37.8	60	-	-

Bsc (Ed) Makerere University Students output: 1954-96
Ba (Ed Makerere) University Students output: 1954-96
TTC: Student Output Form Teacher Training Colleges: Report on Employment in Uganda (1995)
NTC: Student output form National Teacher Colleges - Report on Employment in Uganda (1995)

At University level, women lecturers participate more in Zoology, Botany and Science Education. Their numbers are still insignificant in engineering and mathematics.

CURRENT TRENDS IN ENROLLMENT OF GIRLS AND WOMEN IN THE TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM

There are 24 Technical schools in Uganda Which offer basic technical education to the graduates of primary schools cycle, and after four years successful completion are awarded a Junior Technical Certificate (UJTC°. The second level consists of 33 Technical Institutes which offer craft level education and training in a limited number of trades. Entry requirements for these courses are good passes at O'level.

The third level of technical education and training is conducted in 4 Technical Colleges and one Polytechnic. These offer Diploma courses with entry requirements of at least two Principal passes at Advanced level. The Faculty of Technology at Makerere University is the apex of Technical Education in Uganda.

Female enrollment in technical Institutes, (ITI) Technical Colleges (UTC's) and Polytechnic is embarrassingly low. At Craft's level, Table 4 shows that most of the trades do not have any female students. Likewise at the Ordinary Diploma level, Table 5 illustrates clearly that the percentage of women participation in technical courses is very limited. Table 6 gives a breakdown of women students persuing Ordinary Diploma in Civil, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering.

Female enrollment in Technical Institutes, (TI), Technical Colleges (UTCS) and only polytechnic is embarrassingly low. At Craft's level most of the trades do not have any female students. Likewise at the Ordinary Diploma level.

Table 5: UPK Ordinary Diplomas: Students by course sex and year 1987/88 - 1990/91

	1987/89				1988/89				1989/90				1990/91
	Year 1		Year 2		Year 1		Year 2		Year 1		Year 2		Year 1		Year 2
	M	F	M	F	M	F	M	F	M	F	M	F	M	F	M	F
ADD	13	3	6	3	20	1	21	0	22	0	21	0	13	3	19	0
ODC	13	0	20	0	48	0	42	0	0	0	0	0	50	0	56	0
ODE	15	1	13	1	39	0	25	0	39	0	25	0	27	5	42	3
ODIC	8	1	4	1	4	4	8	1	12	0	10	0	9	4	10	4
ODM	28	0	30	0	50	0	45	0	50	0	45	0	38	0	51	0
ODWE	13	2	12	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
ODST	48	8	39	3	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	58	18	65	10
RTET	15	0	38	1	0	0	0	0	43	0	0	0	40	2	0	0
SLT	19	5	13	2	72	0	64	0	32	0	0	0	61	15	0	0
TTE	17	3	0	0	0	0	0	0	30	0	0	0	26	4	0	0
TOTAL	189	23	175	11	233	5	205	1	228	0	101	0	322	51	243	17

ADD: Architectural Design; ODC: Ordinary Diploma in Civil Engineering; ODE: Ordinary Diploma in Electrical Engineering; ODIC: Ordinary Diploma in Industrial Ceramics; ODM: Ordinary Diploma in Mechanical Engineering.; ODWE: Ordinary Diploma in Water Engineering; ODST: Ordinary Diploma in Science and Technology; RTET: Radio and Television Engineering; SLT: Sciences et Laboratory; TTE: technical Teacher Education

Table 6: Enrolment at state owned vocational school by sex

Trade		Year 93		Year 93
		N° of M	N° of F	% F	% M
1	Electrical installation and fitting	117	4	3.3%	96.7%
2	Painting and Decoration	16	6	27.3%	72.7%
3	Plumbing	36	0	0.0%	100%
4	Fitting and machinery	60	0	0.0%	100%
5	Welding and fabrication	78	1	1.3%	98.7%
6	Carpentry and Joinery	66	1	1.5%	98.5%
7	Brick/block making	71	0	0%	100%;
8	Auto mechanic	7	0	0%	100%
9	Motor vehicle mechanics	14	0	0%	100%
10	Weaving and tailoring	0	34	100%	0%
	TOTAL	439	46	9.5%	90.5%

Source: Table 24 shows State owned Vocational Training Institutions under the Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT)

FACTORS (BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE) DETERMINING THE ORIENTATION OF GIRLS TOWARDS SCIENCE EDUCATION AND TECHNICAL/VOCATIONAL

Although Uganda is a patriarchal society, most of the elementary shoots are co-educational and therefore all children have theoretically an equal opportunity of going to school. However, there is a high rate of female dropouts particularly in the sciences. This wastage persists at every stage right into employment.

Below are some of the numerous factors that contribute to this wastage with specific emphasis on sciences and technical/vocational education and training.

1. Most parents when confronted with financial constraints generally favour the education of male children

2. When there is need for domestic assistance, daughters are usually the preference. Also the traditional division of labour in the home is more demanding on girls than boys.

3. The children's view are influenced towards sex stereotyping at a very tender age by parents, by the different exposure they receive as girls or boys with different hobbies and household tasks and their choice of toys for each sex.

4. The majority of teachers, like numerous other members of society, have grown up with the idea that women have a different role to fulfill than men.

5. In primary school, assigning of mainly female teachers to elementary classes only serves to confirm the social expectation with regard to the role of women.

6. At secondary school level, the number of girls offering sciences is less because their teachers are mostly men and the girls think that this is man's preserve. Career guidance is given in Form IV, when most of the girls have already dropped some of the vital science subjects.

7. Early pregnancy and marriage contribute to high drop out rate. Under these circumstances, the girls are forced to terminate their education with no other alternative avenues open for mobility. Further they are scanty chances of mothers of rejoining the education mainstream.

8. At tertiary level, there are no technical shoots/institutes for women only; and those available are heavily sex stereotyped. (Note that girl's shoots perform very well in the sciences. Most females in science and technical/vocational programmes come from girls's shoots)

9. The shoots provide different treatment and experience for boys and girls in science. It is not geared towards the interests and aptitudes of girls, so when confronted with a choice, the girls naturally drop the sciences. This situation is worsened especially if the teachers are male.

10. Since text books, published materials, posters, library reference books, syllabi and examinations all impose severe constraints on the development of girls as they refer more often to males than females. When girls are referred to, it is usually in minor insignificant roles.

11. The methods of teaching sciences and treating scientific concepts do not incorporate the gender cultures and psychological factors of women. The same number of boys and girls may attend the same laboratory class but participate in unequal ways.

12. Bias in curriculum packages and lack of social context in the content of science plays a major role in producing girls'negative attitudes towards science.

13. Teachers often treat science subjects as entirely mathematical, without elaborating on concepts. Girls who may require systematic conceptual approaches are put off.

14. Teachers, parents and society at large usually use remarks which are both offensive and belittling to the girls in regard to science. Because science is considered as a boy's preserve, girls who venture to study it often find themselves in a hostile male environment. This not only creates a detestful attitude to science but also requires more effort to shun the social forces that are constantly in play.

15. Career guidance is provided by persons whose attitudes and traditions perpetuate and extend discrimination in the curricula. There is a tendency to define the careers along sex lines and science is regarded as a male career, thus forcing girls to non-scientific courses. Career services do not extend to industry to enable provisions for openings for girls.

16. The definitions of feminity imposed onto the girls is so narrow that it resolves around the home more specifically the kitchen, and more recently the church. A woman technologist or engineer is by definition not feminine, women scientists are something to marvel about.

17. In developing countries, Uganda inclusive, parental support and encouragement of girls in sciences is very minimal and in more cases than not, end up in discouragement. Most girls do not have much contact with women scientists to serve as their role models.

18. Obtaining the same certificate does not give a guarantee of an equal welcome on the labour market. Once employment has been obtained, women cannot work under the same conditions as men, since they have additional responsibilities which society expects them to fulfil.

19. For women already in science and technological careers, they continue to suffer marginalisation and sometimes complete exclusion from the male peers. The expectations placed on them to perform both according to and counter to traditional roles make career advancement very difficult. Discriminatory attitudes continue to be exercised at the work place, and women's contributions are frequently ignored or underrated.

20. Most employers especially in scientific and technological establishment are not sensitive to the values of women as they consider the double burden of motherhood a disruption to their work processes. This occurs mainly because of the dominance of men in the establishment and is detrimental to women's aspirations.

21. Most of the science-oriented careers are not paying as business careers. Girls are therefore not ready to toil through to medicine and eventually earn low pay.

22. Most scientific and technological careers take long through research. Girls are not ready to grow to thirty years old while in colleges and universities. By the time they finish a first degree, their orientation focuses on marriage and family.

23. Most of the universities and polytechnics do not recruit individuals with qualifications below a master's degree. The performance of girls at first degree level is below upper second class. This means that very few female qualify for postgraduate studies, and hence cannot teach in colleges and other tertiary institutions.

There are however some positive factors that are now determining the orientation of girls towards science education. Some of these are:

· The few female scientists/engineers we have in Uganda are mostly employed in teaching and lecturing. This is creating a positive impact on girls who are in education mainstream.

· In the Civil service men and women get the same pay at equal rank. There is no discrimination in this regard.

· As society gets more urbanized, the traditional barriers and structures will slowly crumble, giving greater latitude for education and employability.

PRESENT MEASURES TO PROMOTE EQUAL ACCESS OF GIRLS TO SCIENCE EDUCATION AND TECHNICAL/VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONµ

PRESENT MEASURES

Government Policy

While by 1985 the Government Policy was merely limited to ensuring equal education opportunities to every Ugandan without discrimination, the current policy in education encourages positive discrimination in favour of women until gender balance is attained. This policy is being implemented in Government institutions of higher learning, where an additional 1.5 bonus weight is given to female applicants in the University Entrance weighting system. Because of this measure the percentage of women in tertiary institutions has increased from 25% to 34 % in a period of three years. Science departments likewise have recorded higher'intakes.

Remedial Lessons

A number of renowned teachers/professors in sciences conduct holiday classes for those students who feel they are either behind or want to excel. About 80 percent of participants are girls from good secondary shoots. This measure has enabled many more girls to join professional courses in tertiary institutions.

Professional Organisations, notably the Uganda Institutions of Professional Engineers has an Education Committee where Counselling and Career guidance are emphasized. Visits are made to mostly urban and peri-urban shoots and career talks conducted. The author has been in this area for over ten years now and makes more visits to only girls' shoots and co-educational institutions

The Ministry of Education and Sports has an Inspectorate of Education where the department of Counselling and Career Guidance exists. It is supposed to promote and disseminate information in this area. Its impact however, is still minimal due to logistical problems.

Innovative Practices

An important innovation which is to be initiated from upper primary (standard V) is the progressive introduction of practical subjects in the name of vocationalisation of education. The idea is to change the current largely negative attitude amongst pupils towards agriculture and other practical subjects. It it hoped that girls will be introduced to practical subjects early enough by this new innovation.

Government, NGOs and various donor organisation have made great efforts to improve the status of women and increase their participation in technological and economic aspects of the country. In particular, affirmative action in higher education, plans for stop-gap measures for recruitment, training and promotion of women in the formal sector; reviews on legislation, legal advocacy; efforts to diversify women's employment and training, appropriate technology for certain economic activities and for certain household activities; all are promoting women's participation in science and technical/vocational areas.

Difficulties encountered in promoting equal access of girls to science and VET

Vocationalisation of education is a good concept but expensive and cannot therefore be implemented under the present financial constraints.

Women scientists change careers and this constitutes a wastage of human resource.

There are no established reporting procedures between sectorial ministries, data-collection agencies and particularly with the Ministry of Gender and Community Development. In this case therefore reliable data on women/girls participation in science and technology - related activities is scanty.

As retrenchment rages on unabatedly, more women will have to join the informal sector. In this regard scientists/technologists have to undertake business and entrepreneurship courses.

Women science tutors/teachers have to be encouraged to stay in the mainstream of their careers. At present the attrition rate is high.

The absence of female technical officers to handle women and gender issues at the local levels is a major constraint. Linkages between the National machinery and the grassroot level are also weak, making the impact of the National machinery less effective. This means that participation of girls/women in science oriented activities is minimal.

Strategies

Government will continue to mobilise both human and financial resources so as to strengthen the National Machinery for the advancement and empowerment of women.

The White Paper on education recommends the following:

- designing a curriculum that will enable individuals to develop basic scientific, technological; technical, agricultural and commercial skills required for self employment.

- Vocational secondary education should not only cease to be terminal but should also provide students with diversified opportunities for further studies in their chosen vocational fields.

A nationwide information system should provide the required data for guidance and counselling services. For this purpose, special facilities and personnel would be required for collecting, classifying and disseminating information on each profession as well as on the needs of employment and the world of work.

Effective curriculum planning and development in this area should be a dynamic process. It must respond both to the needs of the individual and to the technical requirement of the job, as well as to the changes in job patterns caused by scientific and technological development and socio-economic change. If the above strategies are implemented effectively, they are likely to enhance participation of women/girls in science and technical/vocational areas.

SPECIFIC INFORMATION REQUIRED CONCERNING SCIENCE EDUCATION

Compulsory or Optional Science Education

At the primary level of education, the curriculum includes Science and Health education which are compulsory to all pupils, and is examinable at the end of the 7th year at school.

Secondary education has compulsory and optional subject areas. Amount the compulsory subjects are Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Mathematics. In order to qualify for a Uganda Certificate of examination at the end of the 12th grade, one has at least do either Biology of Agriculture. In this respect therefore every effort is being made to ensure that pupils are given basic aspects of the living world.

Integrated VS Subject Specialization

In Uganda, integrated science is not offered. Subjects such as Physics, Chemistry, and Biology have distinct syllabi, although a slight overlap exists in areas of modem science.

Timing of Specialization

Students have to choose either nine or ten subjects out of Ordinary level curriculum. They do this at the end of their second year in lower secondary i.e. in Senior II, and they sit for their O'level examination in Senior four. This choice gives them a combination of both science and humanity options. After Ordinary level, students proceed to Higher School Certificate programmes where they are free to take one of the many combinations of subjects. However, the combinations have either Science or Humanities orientation. At this level there are clear subjects combinations which indeed determine whether one will be a scientist, social scientist, lawyer, etc.

Health and Environmental Issues

The Education Policy Review Commission of 1989 pointed out that the development of awareness and concern for protection of the environment should form part of^; the strategy for environmental education. This aspect of education is now reflected in the educational objectives and curriculum at all levels of education. The current curriculum and objectives of Science and Health Education in Primary Shoots in Ugandan stress the inculcation on an understanding, appreciation, protection and utilization of the natural environment using scientific and technological knowledge.

There is already a well equipped Department of Environment and Natural Resources at Makerere University.

In the non-formal sector, community service schemes for the youth have been started. Their activities include tree planting, spring cleaning and terracing. School's participation in these activities have been encouraging and have ensured better understanding of the environment by the pupils.

Teaching of Skills and Values

The role and value of science education in national development is not emphasized in the delivery system. Pupils do science subjects because they have to pass examination. Differentiation between education and training is also still not very clear. Most pupils and students do not aim early enough at acquiring a skill for life-long applications.

The source of this embarrassment is that the education system is not linked to the world of work. Vocational education and training, where skills are imparted, has low status in the public eye. There is therefore need not only to sensitize the population but also to review and streamline technical/vocational curricula.

Retention of qualified tutors, teachers and instructors in science education is extremely hard. Because of poor remuneration, qualified personnel are forced to look elsewhere. There is also an anomaly at the tertiary level in that very bright students do not go to teaching and vocational education and training options. Consequently, individuals of only average abilities stay in these vital areas. Consequently research and development in these areas is adversely affected.

Academic Background of Science Students

About two decades ago, only very bright students could join Mathematics and Science options. Indeed students who had 3A's in Science subjects could choose to join teaching, as it was a respectable profession. However, what we have now is an exact opposite. Academic background of a prospective teacher is most often, low. In fact some teachers were drafted into profession.

FUTURE STRATEGIES AND PLANS

POLICY

The Government of the Republic of Uganda has, this year, started implementing the recommendation of “White Paper on Education” of universalization of primary education. Unfortunately some families still keep their children at home to continue with household work such as babysitting and cultivation! Government may have to enforce or legislate a law against denying education to all citizens of Uganda.

Vocationalization

Education at all levels should aim at equipping the persons with knowledge and skills that are useful for productive work. Such education also helps in developing healthy attitude toward manual labour and a more balanced personality. This is the basis for vocationalization of education at both primary and secondary education levels.

The strategy will be to involve parents in the implementation of vocationalization, as it is expensive for Government alone.

Social, Psychological and Education Factors

There is need to embark on a long journey of:

· Changing the negative attitude of girls' home environment towards science and technical/vocation education and training.

· Cultivating interest among girls towards scientific occupation.

· Creating role models/or changing teachers' attitudes towards girls in shoots or women in non-formal establishments.

· Creating or identifying firms with experience in training girls in the technical sector.

· Creating a smooth transfer bridge between school and apprenticeship for girls and women.

Training officers, consultants and teachers should be familiarized with the obstacles that especially beset girls in their particular training sector. These activities should also be directed to the use of materials suitable for training girls and their didactic applications, and to the specific aspects of the supervision of girls.

Counselling and Guidance will form a large component of the activities in the promotion of equal access of girls to science education and technical and vocational education and training. Even those who are to do the counselling must be sensitized well enough to appreciate the delicate nature and magnitude of the problem.

Examples abound when fellow girls have discouraged their fellow girls form doing mathematics or many other scientific subjects.