Promotion of the Equal Access to Girls in Scientific, Technical and Vocational Education in Republic of Namibia

Milka K. KALOMO*

* University of Namibia, Biology Department, Windhoek, NAMIBIA.

Due to the colonial system that existed before, girls and women were the most disadvantaged people in Namibia society. They didn't have opportunities to study. Not only the colonial system, but also the traditional beliefs system and African culture had a negative impact on girls' or women are not intelligent enough to attend school; that is why they must stay home an do the domestic work. During colonial time, there was, for example, non law enforcement requiring everybody to attend school that could encourage girls to attend school.

Namibia became independent seven years ago, the Namibian government has been preoccupied with addressing the gender issue in order to create an atmosphere of mutual acceptance and accommodation. The gender issue is well stipulated in the Namibian Constitution, Chapter 3, Article 10. The Parliament has also adapted the Marriage Equality Bill, which provides the most progressive and clear position on the status of women: Marriage Equality Act 19 of the Namibian Constitution. This Marriage Equality Bill, includes the reconciliation of the existing customary laws with the provisions of the Constitution regarding the equality of women and men, and the secure that the Constitution prevails where there is conflict with customary laws and practices.

Women have lagged behing in education and training and have consequently not been able to contribute to their utmost in the development process. Even at the technical and vocational training level where human resources are being prepared for future job markets, women have been encouraged to train in the secretarial field, and home rather than in trade crafts, technical and engineering fields (National Development Plan for Namibia, 1995).

Since women constitute the majority of the population in Namibia, one of the major objectives of the government, in both medium and long term, is to make optimal use of the country's human resources to achieve the goals of socio-economic development.

Perspective for the role of girls and women in socio-economic development

Namibia's population is currently estimate at 1.6 million with an annual growing rate of 3.1%. About 51% of Namibian, population are women. Still with this high rate of the women population in Namibia, more women are under-employed compared to men. Only 49.4% of Namibian population is economically active, 58% of whom are men and 42% women. From the 49.4% active population in Namibia, 57.8% are men and 41.6% women. Labour Statistics Bulletin 1995: (See Table 4).

Out of the 412% unemployed 20.6% are men and 19.5% are women. Looking at the statistics of the Namibian population within the urban and rural areas, one notices that there are more men than women in the urban. The statistics above clearly indicate that there is a higher rate of unemployement in the urban areas than the rural areas due to the movement of people from rural areas to the urban areas looking for work. The availability of jobs are concentrated in the central of Namibia, especially around Windhoek.

Current trends in the participation of girls in science subjects in school

Namibia provided education for all at the primary and secondary school level and the Constitution of the Republic of Namibia stipulates that children must attend school until the age of sixteen.

At the national level, female participation in education increases throughout the system, from 48.9% in lower primary to 55.1% in junior secondary, and then declines to 50% in senior secondary school. These national figures, however, show regional differences at primary school and even at junior secondary school. Failing rate only in Rundu with 43% during 1994. At the senior secondary school level, however only 30% and 40.6% of the learners are female in the Okavango and Kunene regions, respectively. In contrast the male participation declines in secondary school in Ondangwa East and West where males represent only 40% of the learners. (See Table 4). The table shows the enrolment of pupils from grade one to grade 12 in different regions in me country by sex. Promotion rates are calculated as a percentage by dividing the number of new entrants of Grade X in 1995 by the numbers of learners enrolled in the previous grade (Grade X-1) for 1994.

Current employment of women in the teaching profession (Science education)

Currently there are 17,645 teachers employed in the teaching profession in Namibia. According to the Eduction Management Information System (EMIS) report of 1995, 60.8% of the professional teachers are female, and 369.6% are male. At secondary school level there are 30.9% professional teachers. There are 12.9% professional teachers involved in the teaching of Science at Secondary school. That constitutes 41.9% of both female and male teachers at primary school.

Table 1: Female Teachers in Science Education

Teachers	Primary	Secondary	Science T.
Males	2139	3172	1250
Females	9528	2288	1040
Total	9895	5460	2290

Looking at the table above one can see that secondary school female teacher are most involved in the teaching of Biology, Physical Science and Mathematics. The majority of the teachers are involved in teaching science as a subject. (1995 Education statistics). Out of the eight educational regions in Namibia with the total of 17, 645 teachers as a whole, there are only 22.9% female teachers involved in the profession of science education. This 54.6% of female teachers of the 41.9% of both male and female teachers involve in science education.

Current trends in enrolment of girls and women in the technical and vocational system

Women's access to scientific and technological information and facilities is very limited. The rural women, for example, mostly depend on simple traditional technologies for both their work and domestic needs. This kind of working situation is very tiring for them and slow. In order to ease the burdens on women there is a need to move away from hoes and axes to oxen underdeveloped technology especially in areas where cattle are reared. There is also a need to move away from three mortar and the pestle, grinding stone and ordinary sun-drying to more efficient and simple technologies such as hammer-mills, oil pressers and solar-driers.

The table below shows the enrolment of boys and girls in Vocational and Technical Colleges within Namibia. This is a clear indication that girls are still not evolve in Technical and Vocational education. They represent about 11.8% of the overall population of the students enrolled in Technical and Vocational Training Colleges in Namibia.

This is due to the colonial system that existed and a strong belief in cultural traditions, that girls and women are not to be involved in this type of physical work.

The few girls involved in this technical and vocational training colleges are mostly studying needlework and typing. There is a lack of interest in girls for subjects such as Motor Mechanics, Electricity, Engineering, etc. Girls who are involved in this type of professions are laughed at.

One of the factors of poor enrolment in vocational and technical colleges is that the schools were not constructed to accommodate girls. There are six vocational training colleges in Namibia; however there are very few or no girls at some of these centres.

Table 2: Representation of Girls in six Vocational Colleges in Namibia

College	Boys	Girls	Total
Arandis STC	27 19%	310%	30
Okakarara VTC	80 100%	0	80
Rundu VTC	30 84.4%	7 15.5%	45
Valombola VTC	195 88.6%	23 11.4%	220
Windhoek VTC	243 90%	27 10%	270
Zambezi VTC	25 55.5%	20 44.5%	45
Total	608 88.1%	82 11.9%	690

FACTORS DETERMINING THE ORIENTATIONS OF GIRLS TOWARDS SCIENCE EDUCATION AND TECHNICAL/VOCATIONAL TRAINING

Economical factors (trends in national economic development)

The majority of the Namibia population is living under poverty and extreme poverty. Schools in Namibia are expensive and most families cannot afford to educate their children. This also leads to early pregnancy and early school drop outs especially among teenagers.

The Namibian economy is mostly dominated by male workers especially in the Mining and the Fishing sectors. This is due to the fact that manual work like mining is look at as heavy which cannot be done by women. The majority of workers in Namibia (47.4% are in the Agriculture sector with 52% female and 44% male. Male-dominated industries are construction, with 97%, electricity and water supply (95%), mining (94%), fishing (92%) and communication (85%). With the exception of three industries whereby the share of female is fairly sustantial: Domestic work, with 82%, health and social work (69%), and education (60%). Jobs like domestic work, health and the rest are seen as very easy and appropriate for women: that is why you find the majority of women in those professions.

Sociological factors (culture, traditional, religious, etc. including the social attitude towards science education and technical/vocational training)

Looking at girls in rural and urban areas, there is a big difference due to the fact that girls in urban area are exposed to better learning facilities, better schools and development facilities than girls in rural area. Girls from areas, since life are mostly from poor families that afford to the children to study in urban areas, since life is more expensive in big cities. Girls in rural areas are living under primitive conditions characterised by old traditions. There is still no electricity in some villages which makes study difficult for pupils in rural areas since they are using candles and kerosene lamps. There are very few schools in rural areas and in some cases the pupils have to walk long distances, or are obliged to stay at home and to take care of domestic issues instead of going to school.

In Namibia about 68% of the population still lives in the rural areas and is primarily engaged in traditional agriculture. Localized rapid population growth is leading to a shortage of available land for cultivation and this results in deforestation.

The absorption of rural communities into a market-oriented economic system has been damaging to resources because the traditional land ownership systems has a built-in check mechanism which contained the potentially destructive effects shifting cultivation and forest grazing of about 48.4% of the land in rural areas.

Various social units in the rural localities in Namibia are normally embedded in traditional patterns of beliefs, kingship, politics, economics and so on. These traditional patterns are interwoven into a tight and complicated fabric.

Gender stereotyping is evident in the statistics, in terms of which subjects are most popular with boys and girls, meaning the individual ability is not taken into consideration. Pupils choose subjects without the knowledge what they can do better. For example, 35% of the girls take Geography as compared to 64.5% of boys; 21.1% of girls take Kwangali (language spoken in the Rundu region) as compared to 78.9% of boys; 29.4% of girls take Computer Science as compared to 70.6% of boys; (Women in Development Country Profile) See the figure below:

Table 3: Secondary school Drop-out Rates per 100 School Population by Grade and Sex

Grade	Girls	Boys
8	10.7	9.6
9	10.2	6.8
10	22.3	20.4
11	8.6	5.8

CSO Women and Men in Namibia (Source MEC Annual Education Census for 1993).

Technological factors (related to the changes in the world of work)

Science and technology play a crucial role in the development process of any country. International experience shows that nations which are not equipped to create, adapt and use new technologies are left behind. Part of the development strategy therefore addresses the issue of how Namibia is to stimulate and use technological developments, especially in the fields where it has expertise such as agriculture, fishing, mining and certain manufacturing industries. A science and technology policy dealing with science education, vocational training as well as development will be drawn up to address the issue. This is to be drawn up by Ministry of Higher Education, Vocational Training, Science and Technology.

Employment related factors (employability, labour market structures, wages, etc.)

Women are engaged in both the formal and informal sectors of the economy. The available statistics show 44% of those employed formally are women, while men account for 56%. Women outnumber men in services due to their dominance employees in private households as domestics. The employment status is given Table 5.

However, in most other sectors, men outnumber women. Few reliable statistics are available for the informal sector, but the general picture seems clear with 40,450 more men engaged than women (59,154 men and 18,704 women).

In order to improve the employability and labour market structure, the First National Development Plan (NDP1) works on the following objectives:

- increase the number of women in the wage-employment
- increase the number of women in informal sector activities
- diversify the career opportunities open to women
- facilitate further progression, advancement and training of women
- promote the role of informal sector
- promote awareness of women's capacities in the work force
- improve women's administrative and managerial skills.

In the employment structure, out of 3467 establishments providing a response, slightly over one-third (37%) belong to agriculture, followed by trade/hotel accounting for 27% of the reported establishments. Community and social services is the third largest industry with 474 establishments, while manufacturing establishment are 121 in number-roughly 6% of the total. Companies pertaining to the remaining are less than 100 in each industrial category except Finance and Real Estate with 314 institutions.

Looking at male and female representation in various wage slabs, the female share is 16.7% of the lowest slab at less than 300N$ in comparison to 9.36% of the highest slab, earning more than 3000N$ is below average representation (30% in comparison to 35%) in the top wages group of N$ 2000 plus for men. (See Table 6).

Education (in general education, science and technical/vocational education)

At Independence, the education system was best characterized by five key features:

- fragmentation along racial ethnic lines

- unequal access to education and training at all levels of the system

- inefficiency in terms of progression and achievement rates and high wastage rates

- irrelevance of the curriculum and teacher education programmes to the needs and aspirations of individuals and the nation

- lack of democratic participation within the education and training system. Teachers, parents, administrators and workers were largely excluded from decision-making processes (See Table 7).

Behind these characteristics was an extremely unequal financial resource allocation. The inequities within and between the regions resulted from the presence of several ethnic authorities with extremely unequal resources sometimes operating in the same region. Learners in school around the country who were under the White Administration had almost ten times as much money to spend on their education, as for example, a learner attending a school under the Ovambo Administration or Black School.

The formal education system consists of seven years of primary education followed by three years of junior secondary and two of senior secondary. Only one school offers vocational education at the senior secondary school level, the Windhoek Technical High School. There are special educational institutions for learners with special needs at secondary school level; i.e., 'Seuns Pioneers Van Rhyn Ehafo, Eluwa and Morisson”. Adult and continuing education complements formal education and is the responsibility of the Ministry of Basic Education and Culture (MBEC) in co-operation with NGOs and other cooperating partners. Vocational colleges offer learners the opportunity to augment their academic training with job-related skills.

Post matric education in some programmes is provided by the University of Namibia, Teacher Education Colleges, the Polytechnic of Namibia and the College of Agriculture, which is now integrated into the University of Namibia as the Faculty of Agriculture.

In addition to that, some students are studying at universities outside the country Tertiary level training in the field of Fisheries and Marine Biology, Geology, Mining Engineering, Architecture, Town Planning and Agriculture, which cannot be offered in the Republic of Namibia, those students with a Bursary from the Government have the opportunity to go and study somewhere in South Africa or other countries.

The University of Namibia also houses several teaching facilities, bureaux and research centre (e.g. the Centre for Visual and Performing Arts, the Centre for External Studies and the Computer Centre) but few were geared towards the promotion of science and technology education which is what Namibia most needs.

To combat such problems in tertiary education and training, a new ministry responsible for Higher education, Vocational Training and Science and Technology was created.

Training facilities and opportunities at all level are inadequate. There is a lack of trained teachers, classes are not well organized and there are not good teaching facilities.

Those facilities that are available were not fully utilized. Efforts have been made in consultation with all stakeholders in vocational training to establish a National Vocational Policy. (NDP1, Vol I).

PRESENT MEASURES TO PROMOTE EQUAL ACCESS OF GIRLS TO SCIENCE EDUCATION AND TECHNICAL/VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

The Constitution of the Republic of Namibia for equal access to both boys and girls in science education and vocational/technical education.

The Basic Education Reform and Development Programme covers grade 1 to 10 (that is primary education and junior secondary school education) imbalances in education that existed prior to Independence are the reason for many of the problems in implementing the present targets of equitable access and quality education for all. Despite the obstacles it faces, the Government will endeavour to implement the new basic education reform during the planned period. Reform implementation started 1991 at junior secondary school level.

Higher education is intended to develop skilled human resources for the country. Competent administration and management, increased productivity and effective use of advanced technology, and innovation in all spheres of life, depend on the nature, scope and quality of tertiary education.

In addition to the University, an autonomous Polytechnic has been established to focus more closely on employment-related skills. Current plans for the Polytechnic entail divisions for technical services, accounting and information systems, technical art and design, library studies and information services, management and administration.

The objectives is to improve, develop and utilise national human resource through vocational training, by:

- restructuring and equipping vocational centres;

- creating an enabling environment for private sectors vocational training institutions;

- developing up-to-date vocational training curricula;

- matching vocational training outputs with job curricula;

- management and administration of vocational training policy, law and government vocational training Institutions.

National strategies, policies and legislation affecting the social attitudes of students parents and others towards science education and technical/vocational education

The Constitution of the Republic of Namibia forbids sex discrimination by both public and private bodies. Women and girls who experience such discrimination may seek help from court or from the Ombudsman. At a more structural level, the Department of Women Affairs is in the process of formulating a national gender policy and the Law Reform & Development Commission bears responsibility for supervising law reforms to remove all existing legal discrimination against law or customary law, action in both of these areas is underway (CEDAW, 1995).

Technologies which aim to assist women in the tasks of planting, weeding and harvesting are scarce. For example, women and girls spend about 50 hours per month processing millet in some regions.

Appropriate technology to reduce the time spent on agricultural processes such as millet processing could greatly reduce the workload of the rural women, especially if combined with input such as reasonably-priced seeds, implements and pesticides.

It has been suggested that women's productivity would be increased by greater access to animal ploughs, as opposed to the use of tractor services which are more expensive and more technologically complex.

Innovative practices and employment opportunities (including self-employment) in both the public and private sectors

Due to the shortage of formal employment opportunities in government and in private companies, a large proportion of the workforce, both male and female, will be compelled to seek a living in the informal sectors. Research findings report that 30-40% of peri-urban and urban households are engaging in petty trades and other informal sector activities. Unlike in many entrepreneurial activity. Only since independence has a lively informal sector with open markets and home enterprises begun to emerge.

The characteristics of the informal sector include very low educational levels, lack of capital, in absence of record-keeping. As with formal employment, the informal sector has quickly become stratified by gender. Men dominate activities with high profit margins, such as taxi-driving or middle-level trade. Women carry out activities such as selling food, brewed beer and making baskets or crafts with low profit margins and considerable time requirements. The income is low, averaging N$ 50-80 per month. For both men and women involve in this type of trading:

- The labour act which forbids discrimination in employment on the basis of sex, needs to be enforced more vigorously;

- All laws should be reviewed to provide equal opportunities for men and women in the labour market.

- The breadwinner concept should be done away with so that employees are considered equal with regard to employment conditions and benefits

- Women's productive work in agriculture and other 'informal' spheres should be recognised in national statistics and policies, these issues involve gender awareness, women in decision-making, institutions to advance and the understanding of poverty and the status of women.

To achieve these objectives, communication programmes and activities should be implemented in order to reach a variety of audiences. Theses are building capacity and strengthening collaboration among development agencies which have an interest to enable them to play their roles more effectively (See the Namibia National Report to the World Conference on Women, 1994).

Difficulties and constraints encountered in the implementation of above measures and policies strategies developed to overcome them

Vocational educational system is not yet in place and there are no trained instructors. There are only six vocational training colleges in Namibia. This is due to the fact that there are not enough instructors in fields needed to be studied in vocational training. Also the Vocational Training Colleges were constructed to accommodate very few student as you can see from Table 1.

While many factors contribute to disadvantaged status of girls and women, the most direct constraint to their entry to the labour market and to their influence in society remains their limited access to education. This state of affairs was aggravated by the general inadequacy of education in the country. The educational system resulting from ethnically oriented administrations was heavily skewed in terms of the quantity and quality of regional educational resources.

The recent review of gender curriculum (Ilukeni, 1991, NNRWCW, 1994) highlighted the extent to which differenciated learning pervaded the curriculum, and its built-in assumption that practical subjects for girls should relate to their future roles as mothers and home-makers, whilst boys would likely need preparation for entry into the world of formal employment. Linked to this is also the primary and secondary education, together with other factors, which serve to promote gender stereotyping with respect to future employment. For example, while less than 1% of the formal education students were receiving vocational or technical tuition in 1989 (1,297 out of 372,572 students) less than 20% of these were girls and more than half were students from “white” schools.

Limited access to vocational and technical training is the major constraint for women wishing to enter the labour market, especially for those who do not qualify for admission to formal post-secondary training. As it was mentioned at the gender workshop organised by the Department of Women Affairs (DWA) in February 1994, however efforts have been made by some private sector organisation such as Rissing Foundation and the Council of Churches in Namibia to provide informal (through certificate) vocational training to women and men. The post repatriation experience of women who received vocational training in exile does, however, show that even where training has been provided, employment may not be available due to prevailing attitudes.

As a legacy of socio-economic problems such as high rate of unemployment, rapid urbanisation, poverty and family disintegration, some women, girls and children in Namibia have neither exercised nor enjoyed their basic right, and have become victims of subtle as well as outright discrimination. Furthermore, for many years the country was torn apart by the war and the policy of apartheid, which affected women, girls and children the most, placing them in most difficult circumstances.

With the establishment of a Women and Child Abuse Centre in Windhoek in 199, a senior social worker was seconded to assist with the immediate counselling of traumatised women, girls and children on a 24 hours basis. Additional social workers were also identified and assigned to similar centres in Oshakati and Keetmashoop.

SPECIFIC INFORMATION REQUIRED CONCERNING SCIENCE EDUCATION

Information on science, technology and environmental education at primary and secondary levels, notably as concerns

Our education system has two sort of responsibilities in preparing Namibians for the world of work. First, our basic education programmes build a broad and solid foundation. Young and old people alike will be most successful in finding and creating jobs if they can read, write and handle numbers well. Their pre-vocational preparation will be even stronger if it enables learners to become skilled at identifying and solving problems, analysing situations and drawing on their knowledge to synthesise solutions and applying what they know to new settings.

Second, together with public and employers' and workers' organisations we must develop a coherent and effective vocational education and training. If we are successful in doing that, we shall have a system in which many responsibilities are shared and in which at the same time there is clarity of purpose and direction and fair manageable accreditation.

Compulsory or optional science education;
Integration science vs. Subject specialization;
Early or late subject specialization;
Inclusion of health and environmental issues;
Teaching skills and values, poor academic background of science teaching.

Data on girl's in science technology, environmental and health education

School mathematics and Science have been described as critical filters for entry into Science-based careers. Those students who do not study science and mathematics select themselves out of these careers. Several factors contribute to this selection out of science and mathematics for many females students in particular, some of which include under-achievement in science and mathematics, attitudes of both teachers towards girls and of girls towards the study of science and teaching materials to name just a few (Interim Report, 1994)

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE STRATEGIES AND PLANS

Namibia faces the complex challenges and redressing social and economic imbalances and forging a climate of democracy in which all are willing and able to participate. In Namibia, many leaders have recognised the situation of struggle and inequality of women. Greater attention is being given to the role of women in development.

The country has demonstrated its commitment to providing better health and education services and improving conditions in the working places. The Constitution, together with ongoing legal reform and awareness, is helping to create an environment conducive to women's rights.

However, since discrimination against women in Namibia takes place in different forms, it is not a very simple task to identify and eliminate all forms of discrimination at once. A broadly representative inter-agency workshop has recognised a number of areas requiring priority action. It is envisaged that these issues can be addressed over a period of years; These include:

Law and property ownership

The country must urgently repeal or amend discriminatory laws. Women should be able to obtain credit and loans in their own right, marriage laws should be amended and there must be guarantees that women have equal access and secure right to land.

Laws should give women independent legal and economic status. This process should be expedited in the following manner:

A. Greater financial and technical support to the Women and Law Reform Committee could expedite the process of review and recommendations.

B. Women should be encouraged to challenge unconstitutional law in the courts in order to set precedents.

C. Namibia's capacity to facilitate legal reforms is stretched. A specially recruited legal drafter is needed to translate recommendations into legal bills.

D. The Department of Women Affairs (DWA) and other agencies should intensify education for women on their rights through the production and dissemination of material in simplified publication, translated into all major languages.

Education

The DWA should work with the Ministry of Education and Culture to ensure that young women have access to subject and career information.

The relevant bodies should be pressured to use gender sensitive selection criteria to redress the women's disadvantages help them again access scholarships and further education.

The literacy status of women, particularly rural women, should even be improved further.

Table 4: Participation Rate by Age Group and Sex

Labour Force				Participation Rate
Age group	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female	Total
10-14	3.5	2.7	3.1	11.4	6.6	9.0
15-19	21.7	23.7	27.4	19.4	23.4	23.4
20-24	74.6:	60.3	67.5	63,8	51.7	57.5
25-29	90.6	68.9	80.1	88.2	65.9	76.9
30-34	92.4	67.4	81.0	92.5	64.8	77.0
35-39	92.6	67.1	81.0	92.5	64.8	77.1
40-44	91.9	62.8	79.3	92.3	64.9	76.8.1
45-49	91.5	58.5	77.3	91.8	64.6	76.8
50-54	87.7	4.9.7	71.3	89.5	61.3	74.2
55-59	80.9	39.1	62.5	87.2	56.6	71.2
60-64	57.8	19.8	39.2	62.6	39.5	49.5
65 +	23.6	6.5	14.2	36.1	22.8	28.5
Total	67.5	46.3	57.2	53.4	39.7	46.4

This is calculated from the total numbers of people who are economical active from age 10 to 65 among both males and females which is 49.4% of the Namibian population. Promotion Rates (%) of male and female learners in Grade 1-11, end of 1995.

Table 5

	All learners	Male	Female
Grade 1-2	68.6	67.3	70.0
Grade 2-3	76.7	77.5	82.0
Grade 3-4	83.8	81.5	86.1
Grade 4-5	72.5	70.1	74.8
Grade 5-6	74.6	72.9	76.2
Grade 6-7	78.1	77.7	78.4
Grade 7-8	72.6	73.3	72.0
Grade 8-9	73.2	74.6	72.1
Grade 9-10	78.0	80.7	75.9
Grade 10-11	49.0	56.8	43.4
	93.9	95.7	92.0

The higher one goes in the class, the more expensive it becomes for parents to pay school fees, and there is a higher rate of teenage pregnancies in the higher grades.

Namibian unemployed Population, Aged 10 and over by sex and Education Attainment, 1991 (Labour Bulletin, 1995)

Table 6

Level of Education Attained	Total		Male		Female
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
No schooling	24.603	24.8	16.073	28.1	8.530	20.3
Primary	37.836	38.1	22.901	40.0	14.935	35.6
Junior Secondary	35.805	36.1	17.792	31.1	18.013	43.9
Senior Secondary	467	0.5	228	0.4	239	0.6
Technical/Vocational	185	0.2	76	0.1	109	0.3
Teacher Training	237	0.2	123	0.2	114	0.2
University	106	0.1	70	0.1	36	0.1
Total	99.236	100.0	57.263	100.0	41.976	100.0

Table 7: Monthly Wage by Employment

Monthly Wage N$	N° Establishment	Employment			Ave. Monthly Wage N$
		Male	Female	Total
<100	147	1023	865	1888	51
101-200	292	1755	1080	2855	154
201-300	478	2441	976	3417	251
301-400	364	2090	586	2676	353
401-500	2578	3350	1127	4477	471
501-750	358	3582	1334	4916	620
751-1000	230	4326	1765	6091	885
1000-1500	314	10917	3162	14079	1266
1501-2000	194	8357	2241	10598	1768
2001-3000	245	9769	2874	11643	2483
3001-5000	118	10519	2076	12595	3360
Above 5000	28	2025	618	2643	6223
Total	3026	59154	18704	77858	1761

Table 8: Resource Allocation to Second Tier Authorities, 198/90 (NDPI)

Administration	Learners as % of National Total	% Financial Resources of Total	Average Allocation per Learner's N$	As % per National Total
Damara	2.8	3.6	1,6996	130
Kavango	9.3	6.5	902	69
Nama	3.2	3.7	1,496	115
Coloured	4.0	5.8	1,868	143
Caprivi	6.2	3.6	764	59
White	4.4	17.5	5,163	396
Twana	0.3	0.6	2,863	220
Herero	0.3	0.6	1,734	133
Ovambo	52.1	21.4	534	41
National Education	12.8	30.8	N/a	N/a
Total Education			1,303	100