Special Focus: The Future is Urban

One of the most dramatic demographic issues which will confront the delegates of the United Nations Habitat II Summit which will take place in June 1996 in Istanbul, is the worldwide phenomenon of rapid urbanization. Urban areas owe much of their growth to immigration and migration caused by population increases throughout the world, In developing countries, most migrants head for towns and cities. Urban areas thus expand not only as a result of their own population increases, but from the overflow of people from rural areas.

Cities have traditionally been the heart of trade, science and culture, but whenever cities grew rapidly or passed a certain size threshold, there have been increases in crime, congestion and pollution. Modern towns and cities pose a challenge to environmental sustainability. They produce little or none of their own food, fuel or water, and use immense quantities of energy and raw materials for transport, communication, construction and production. They generate vast amounts of solid wastes and dangerous concentrations of air and water pollutants. The sheer pace of urban growth in developing countries has often outrun all attempts to provide housing, water, sanitation and roads, and produced few of the expected benefits.

Seaside, New Jersey, U.S.A.

SOURCE: Thomas A. Comitta

The growth rate of the urban population has been very high. In 1950, only 29 people in every 100 lived in cities. Urban areas in the world had a total of only 734 million inhabitants, and only two cities - London and New York - housed more than eight million people. By 1992, the world's urban population had more than tripled, to 2.4 billion, and 43 out of every 100 people lived in towns or cities.

Today, there are 20 mega-cities with more than eight million people in each city; Fourteen of these are in the developing world, where in 1950 there were none. Developing countries, which in 1950 had only 39 percent of the world's urban population, by 1990 had nearly 61 percent.

The future looks even more urban. During the 1990's no less then 72 percent of the world's population increase is expected to take place in towns or cities. Every year, 68 million people, the equivalent of eight extra cities the size of Moscow, Delhi, Paris or Lagos are added. Annual additions to world population are expected to peak in the 1990's, but urban increments will keep on growing.

In many developing countries, national policy in areas such as job creation, education, housing policy and tax incentives have unduly increased the attractiveness of urban areas to potential rural migrants. "Urban biased" policies have contributed to high rates of urbanization in much of the developing world.

LEGAL ISSUES FOR URBAN POPULATION CRISIS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Most developing country governments have limited resources to be spent on social programs. Under the circumstances imposed by rapid growth, the provision of health, education, and water services generally take priority. Insufficient attention to urban planning often compromises a government's ability to anticipate the need for these essential services. Eventually, stresses oh the systems that provide these services are overwhelmed and governments are forced into positions where they can only react to urban crises.

In 1990 a study by Sandy Cairncross suggested that 600 million urban dwellers in the global South lived in shelters and neighborhoods where their lives and health were continually threatened because of the inadequate provision of safe, sufficient water supplies, sanitation, removal of solid and liquid wastes, and health care and emergency services. David Satterthwaite in an article entitled The Four Environmental Revolutions writes that "those not serviced are obliged to use water from streams or other surface sources which in urban areas are often little more than open sewers, or to purchase water from unsanitary vendors. It is little wonder that their children suffer frequently, often fatally, from diarrhoeal diseases."

In this way the pressures brought on by increasing urban populations can prevent governments from instituting the pro-active programs which are necessary for long-term stabilization. Foreign aid programs rarely provide funding for urban planning, and debt repayment schedules, which are often met at the expense of such undertakings, can delay anticipatory programs indefinitely.

Produce and poultry section of vast open-air market in the Treichville section of Abidjan

SOURCE: Newark Sunday News

UNCONTROLLED GROWTH

More common than countries with no urban plans are countries which are unable to enforce the blueprints they have. Even if a plan has not been rendered obsolete by the sheer numbers of the unforeseen urban inhabitants, problems associated with explosive growth have diverted funding from regulatory functions. As a result "unplanned" or "uncontrolled" if not actually illegal developments have far outstripped those that are formally planned. Duran-Lasserve, Director of Research at the CRNS' Inter-urban Research Groups found that "on the basis of recent observation, unauthorized settlement of land is estimated to account for 30% to 80% depending on the populations centre, of urban growth in developing countries."

In addition to preventing the implementation of urban development projects and impeding the arrival of essential services, correcting illegal development's long-term effects will be very costly. In this unfortunate situation, it is often the case that the more urgent the need for urban organization, the longer the delay in accomplishing it.

ILLEGAL DEVELOPMENTS

The most common form of illegal occupation is that which occurs on private or communally owned land. If a landlord develops his land and sells or rents it, the sale could be perfectly legal, but the development itself may not. These illegal projects generally occur on lands which the government has not set aside for development and often do not comply with local construction standards or provide the necessary amenities.

Frequently land is sold or granted under the auspices of old systems and traditional ways but is not formally approved. According to Jean Rivelois, Head of Researchers at ORSTROM (French Institute of Scientific Research for Development and Cooperation), 23% of Guadalajara's annual growth and 25% of its current population are illegally housed. Of these 800,000 people, 75% rent space on land which was originally granted under a state tenure system for private occupation and not development.

Land on the periphery of urban centers is also often occupied by squatters who are there without the owners permission. The families occupying these developments do so precariously. First, they can be evicted at any time. Second, they can neither sell nor grant their property. And, finally, they cannot use the property as collateral for a loan. "The occupant's investment in housing is thus compromised and their ability to develop productive activities is reduced," according to Durand-Lasserve who continues to point out that these arrangements discourage the community cooperation which is needed to bring electricity, water, education and health services to the area.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS:

Identifying landowners

Recognizing the occupancy rights of the inhabitants of these unauthorized settlements is often seen as the necessary first step in providing services for a city's rapidly growing periphery. Until recently planners feared that legal recognition of the claims of unauthorized inhabitants would generate more illegal activities. Now, planners increasingly admit that such views might impede the development of new and better systems of urban land management.

Likewise, traditional belief in the necessity for deeds of title is giving way to the recognitions that less comprehensive rights avoid many of the problems associated with titles while providing many advantages. According to Durand-Lasserve, "The populations themselves regard immediate security of occupation as much more important than legal status." The holder of a right of occupancy on a state owned parcel can both transfer that right and officer it as collateral for a loan. By avoiding the divisive effects of increasing market pressures for real estate, a state can also combat breakdowns in social cohesion and encourage community cooperation.

Problems confronting local authorities include choosing the criteria by which they will identify landowners for taxation purposes and for compensation when their land is condemned to fulfill a role pre-designated by the city plan. Determining which lands are to be taxed plays a major role in the budgetary decisions of developing towns and cities.

Decentralization

Many experts view decentralization of government authority as a necessary first step in addressing urban housing problems. Local administrators need the power to implement local programs. According to Jean Rivelois, decentralization would alleviate stresses in both the capitals and in regional centers. Likewise, in an article entitled Urbanization and Structural Adjustment Programmes: The Zambian Experience, Dr. Ngila Mwase blames administrative failures in coping with unplanned settlements on "urban councils' weak financial and administrative capacity."

Jonathan Baker, of the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies in Uppsala, Sweden, agrees and notes that, "Government policies... can do much to stimulate the development of small towns provided they are willing to permit greater decentralization of decision-making. This means allowing local authorities more power to decide on important issues. This entails, among other things, giving them the ability to raise taxes and spend the proceeds locally."

Jean-Pierre Elong M'Bassi, of the Municipal Development Programme in Cotounou, Benin, recognizes contrary opinion in his article Decentralization in sub-Saharan Africa, Some people take the view that decentralization carries high costs in political and financial terms, without necessarily making a positive contribution to the establishment of a State of Law, a prerequisite for the institutionalization of power and the existence of an effective State. Opponents of decentralization also note that a more distant seat of power would be less susceptible to influence and advocate less extreme delegations of power than complete decentralization.

To the contrary, Mr. Durand-Lasserve concludes that decentralization will be necessary before any new land management program could be successfully implemented, "All studies on the topic of placing land use on a formal footing reveal the absence or weaknesses of intermediate levels of management and decision-making endowed with real powers." Unfortunately, significant delegations of authority from the president to regional governors and from the governors to city mayors are unrealistic expectations in many developing countries today. Officials with sufficient power to adopt new approaches to urban planning often become obstacles to changes as they are reluctant to jeopardize the monopoly power they enjoy over property.

Democracy

The importance of adopting democratic principles is also regarded by some as an essential first step. According to Mr. David Satterthwaite, Director of the Human Settlements Programme at the International Institute for Environment and Development, "Democratic structures are also essential in that without them, government authorities rarely respond to the needs of lower-income groups and seldom ensure that enterprises meet pollution control and occupation health regulations. Democratic structures also help ensure that needs and priorities are determined within each city and not imposed by external agencies."

Other commentators would add that democratic governance is essential for sustainable development and social harmony. Jean-Philippe Peemans contends that democratic self-determination will ensure better use of natural resources and advance the new concepts of government required for sustainable development. And Bernard Schlemmer, in an article entitled "Crises et Recomposition des Identifies a Madagascar, asserts that open political systems reduce incidents of violence by abating racial tensions."

Judiciary

A strong judicial branch is also essential. Creative local authorities are hampered in their ability to implement long term plans, "without an appropriate institutional or legal framework," notes Durand-Lasserve, "they are unable to have a long-term effect on the process of consolidation of the living environment and integration into the towns and cities of the districts in question."

Guadalajara is a case in point. Jean Rivelois claims that a majority of decisions of the Mexican courts were based on social consensus and were valid only until the temporary alliances failed. Laws, he maintains, came to serve the market and could be circumvented by the political actors who controlled it. As a result, long-term plans were abandoned to serve powerful special interests.

Cooperation

Experts increasingly concur that cooperation between different institutions is essential. In The crisis of urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa, Osita Ogbu and Gerrishon Ikiara note that, "Since the issues of access, utilization and effective delivery of the various services are interrelated, successful intervention in one area which is not accompanied by significant amelioration elsewhere will on offer temporary relief." A health clinic on its own, without improvements in nutrition and water quality, will be hard pressed to significantly improve the overall health status of a city slum. The authors cite a 1986 study which concluded that, "shelter alone cannot form (the) solution to the root causes of urban poverty...shelter programmes for the urban poor must be planned along with other programmes aimed at raising (their) income earning opportunities."

Financing

The private sector could also play a key role in providing low-income housing. Until the 1970's, Guadalajara successfully combated the problems of urban growth by creating ways for the private sector to contribute money and participate in the decision-making process. Before agricultural and economic crises drove investors from public works projects, the system showed promise. Ogbu and Ikiara recognized the potential of private involvement and suggest governments "devise a more effective way of enhancing the private sector participation in the supply of housing...Donors and Egos should work as partners within the framework established by governments."

Likewise, the potential contributions of the informal economy have not gone unnoticed. Jean-Philippe Peemans thinks that integrating the informal sector will be helpful in making the transition to sustainable development. Ogbu and Ikiara agree but note that, "Unfortunately, at a time when the [informal] sector is becoming a major source of employment and income, strong supportive institutions are lacking and there is no public policy stance... In spite of the recent recognition, public policy support for the urban informal sector has been mainly ad hoc, piecemeal, and contradictory."

Conclusion

Urban migration is likely to continue. Though urban housing shortages pose serious problems for developing country governments and ought to be addressed as soon as possible, promising solutions have been identified and ought to be explored. It is important that planners not lose sight of the potential positive impacts of urbanization. Newly industrialized countries can benefit from inexpensive labor forces which could be tapped to stimulate economic growth. Urban planners ought to couple these gains with programs which cultivate the informal economy and attract private investment in public works,

SOURCES: The Courier, Brussels, Belgium: Commission of the European Communities; no. 149, January-February, 1995: Jonathan Baker, "Urban Development and Rural Change," p. 59; Alain Durand-Lasserve, "Access of the Poor to Urban Land," p. 68; Jean-Pierre Elong M'Bassi, "Decentralisation in sub-Saharan Africa," p. 85; Babar Mumtaz, "Training for Urban Development" p. 87; Ngila Mwase, "Urbanisation and Structural Adjustment Programmes: The Zambian Experience," p. 64; David Satterhwaite, "The Four 'Environmental Revolutions' for Cities," p. 63; J.F. Tribillon, "Urban Land Questions in French-Speaking Africa South of the Sahara," p. 66.

Atlas of the Environment, Geoffrey Lean and Don Hinrichsen, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC - CLIO, Inc., 1994.

Review Tiers Monde, Presses Universitaires de France: l'Institute d'Elude du Development Economique et Sociale de l'Université de Paris-I, Pantheon, Sorbonne, Jan-Mars, 1995: Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Modernisation, Globalisation, et Territoires," p. 17; M. Haubert et P.-Ph. Rey, "Sociétés en Mutation," p. 15; Jean Rivelois, "La Planification Urbaine a l'Epreuve de la Culture Politique," p. 67; Bernard Schlemmer, "Crise et Recomposition des Identités a Madagascar," p. 129.

Review Tiers Monde, Presses Universitaires de France: l'Institute d'Etude du Development Economique et Sociale de l'Université de Paris-I, Pantheon, Sorbonne, Oct-Dec, 1994: Veronique Dupont and Francoise Dureau, "Role des Mobilités Circulaires Dans les Dynamiques Urbaines," p. 809.

Various United Nations Publications.

List of Major Pollution Issues and Priority Substances in the Coastal Marine Environment

The table below lists the major pollution issues and priority substances from land-based sources which constitute the greatest threat to the marine environment. Assignments under the heading "Status of science management" relate to routine operations; they do not relate to catastrophic accidents.

* Combustion processes, industry, diffuse sources

SOURCE: United Nations General Assembly