3.4 How are objectives being defined ?

Robert Mager has written a book on the subject setting objectives that is worth reading. In this book he lists four basic principles that a learning objective must conform to:

Observable action

A learning objective description must embody perceptible testable behaviour. The best way of selecting this activity is by identifying what it is you want the student to be able to do once the lesson is finished. Fill in:

When the lesson is over the student will be able to.....

The missing verb will provide the learning outcome. This verb should unambiguously indicate which perceptible activity or routine can be performed once the objective has been met. To illustrate this point some verbs are mentioned below which are frequently used but in view of the above should be avoided: know - acquaint understand comprehend appreciate realize

Since these words are unclear and inaccurate they may be misinterpreted. It is preferable to use unambiguous verbs such as: write calculate defend name solve rank identify define perform

Concrete description

The learning material must be defined as concretely as possible. The objectives should clearly define the applicability of the learning material.

Measure of performance

The minimum performance must be defined. The learning objective must give some indication of the standard of performance so the students can be sure about how the task must be performed. Specify the frequency, quality and accuracy.

Relevant condition

In a learning objective describe the conditions under which the desired behaviour must be defined. Specify the circumstances under which the standards should be fulfilled. These conditions can be specified as follows:

The information which may be supplied to the student such as formulas, tables, dictionaries etc the aids or materials to be used such as drawing materials, tables, dictionaries etc.

Examples of learning objectives

The student is able to name at least four characteristics of a malaria patient without consulting a text book.

The student is able to remove the outer tire of a bicycle wheel with the assistance of two tire levers, without damaging the inner tube.

The taxonomy of Romiszowski

In Romiszowski's taxonomy a distinction is made between knowledge and skills. Knowledge is divided into:

Facts: details concerning concrete events, situations, people or matters. One (part of a) lesson can be focused on the student memorizing factual knowledge with the aid of what the teacher tells or shows. An example of a factual objective: a student should be able to quote the percentage of undernourished African children under two years of age.

Procedures: assignments that consist of a step plan. If you learn the procedures and execute them correctly you can solve a problem or carry out an operation. One of your learning aims may be that you wish to teach your students procedures which will assist them in solving problems independently. An example of an objective with regard to procedures: using two given formulas and an adding machine a student is able to calculate how much water type X pump can draw per minute.

Concepts: definitions of abstract matters (for example, freedom, intelligence) or grouping of perceptible objects or matters (think of the concept man or fumiture or means of transport). A learning aim could be to provide the students with insight so- that they are able to fit new examples, objects, etc. into a particular concept system. An example of an objective with regard to the learning of concepts: a student is able to name the characteristics of viral diseases and indicate which illness in a given list of syndromes is caused by a virus

Principles: rules or patterns (if... then... statements). The probing of principles can also form a part of the learning aims that you establish. An example of an objective with regard to the learning of principles: a student is able to explain which preventative measures must be taken when the tse tse-fly Prevails in livestock areas.

These categories of knowledge are characterized by a gliding scale of difficulty. Each category is more difficult to understand, apply and, for the trainer, transfer than its predecessor. Romiszowski's taxonomy draws trainers' and teachers' attention to the fact that the transfer of knowledge is a complex matter. Teaching must result in the students reaming the facts, but also in the transfer of other forms of knowledge.

The transfer of skills is much more important to Romiszowski than just the transfer of knowledge. Attained information must be put into practice in an effective and efficient manner (Standaert, Troch, 1987). In other words, it must be expressed in skills. Many trainers do not think this through and limit themselves to the transfer of information.

This may be the case with trainers who do not have educational skills, however. They have been asked to teach for the knowledge and skills they possess that can be of use to others. They are rarely involved in general or non-vocational education but usually provide practice-oriented courses. Romiszowski's taxonomy can be of assistance when preparing a lesson of this kind.

Romiszowski subdivides skills into:

Cognitive skills, such as decision-making, problem-solving, logical thinking.

Psychomotor skills, such as the performance of actions and techniques.

Reactive skills, such as being conscious of and acting in accordance with a value system, interactive skills in the fields of social intercourse, communication and leadership.

Romiszowski emphasizes that a person can learn to master these skills in a reproductive and in a productive manner. A reproductive command of skills means the performance of a skill following a previously set out procedure. For example:

A student can change an automobile tire in fifteen minutes according to rules provided in the instruction booklet. This is an example of the reproduction of a psychomotor skill. A student can sort five soil samples according to grain size with the assistance of a classification chart. This is an example of the reproduction of a cognitive skill. By productive skills Romiszowski means skills that must be performed without detailed instruction in a new problem situation. This pertains to the application of principles and strategies. For example: A student is able to design a new pattern for a child's frock. This is an example of a psychomotor skill on a productive level. A student is able to analyze the factors which play a role in the desertification of area X. This is an example of a cognitive skill on a productive level. A student is able to create a building plan in cooperation with women farmers from a farming cooperative. This is an example of an interactive skill on a productive level.

This theoretical discussion may put you off. Romiszowski's theory, however, can help you to make a good start in your teaching assignment. This is due to the following reasons:

Romiszowski's taxonomy makes you think about your target group. The importance of this has already been covered.

Romiszowski's taxonomy focuses on acquiring skills. In most cases you have been requested to contribute to a vocational training course where skills have priority, or to provide refresher training to staff in order that they carry out their tasks in a better way. If you formulate objectives according to this taxonomy you will be in less danger of losing sight of the practical orientation of your course than if you were to rely solely on your intuition Your self-confidence benefits from having something to go by while preparing for a job that is new to you. Theory can give you the necessary footing.

Practical tips for formulating objectives with the assistance of a taxonomy

Point of departure: your students must learn things from you in order to (better) perform a task. To arrive at a good formulation of your objectives and a more definite circumscription of the lesson content you should ask yourself the following questions:

Which skills are needed to carry out this task? (Take a look at the taxonomy, you will see that you must differentiate between a number of different sorts of skills.)

How are these skills usually exercised? Is it a matter of fixed procedures or is the student required to think for him or herself how he or she must perform an activity? (In answering this question keep in mind that there is a difference between productive and reproductive skills.)

Which kind of knowledge contributes to the exercising of these skills? (You know from the taxonomy that there are four kinds of knowledge.)

What must the student do to master these skills?

Which skills does the student already possess, what foreknowledge does he or she have?

If you have already defined a principal objective you can try: to establish at least one cognitive skill goal; to establish at least one psychomotor skill goal; to establish at least one reactive skill goal (what position or attitude do you wish your students to take?).

Review each of the skill goals to determine if they represent a reproductive or productive skill - are detailed instructions or a set procedure called for? Establish whether the knowledge component necessary for the completion of an assignment is so important that specific knowledge goals must also be included. Follow the formulation procedures.