Participatory Methods in Community-based Coastal Resource Management - Volume 1 - Introductory Papers (IIRR, 1998, 103 pages): Participation and participatory methods: Degrees of participation

Participatory Methods in Community-based Coastal Resource Management - Volume 1 - Introductory Papers (IIRR, 1998, 103 pages)

Participation and participatory methods

		What is participation?
		Why participation?
		Degrees of participation
		Obstacles to participation
		Participatory methods and other research methods
		References

Degrees of participation

In order to assess the effectiveness of various forms of participation, it is necessary to have acceptable indicators or measures of participation. Some commonly-used indicators include the following:

· timing of participation (i.e., when does participation take place?).
Participation can take place at any stage of the project cycle, but the most useful participation will occur at all stages.
· who participates
Is it the local elite, the men only, the educated, those living closest to the village center? These questions raise an extremely important point about the equitability of participation.
· extent of participation (i.e., what activities do people participate in)
· Probably the most important indicator, however, is the degree to which the community/household or individual has control over decision making related to the initiative.
Who initiated the project? Whose research agenda is used? Whose needs are being met? Whose project design is being used? Who controls the budget? Who controls the direction of the project? These questions address the degree to which community members have control or are empowered. With these indicators, it is possible to make general assessments of the degree of participation taking place in a given project or activity. It also allows for some degree of comparison between objects.

Figure

While these indicators allow some means by which to assess or compare the degree of participation of a project or projects, they should not suggest that there is a "best" time to participate, "best" group to be involved in, or "best" set of activities to participate in. Each form of participation has some value and degree of effectiveness. What is more important is the overall extent of empowerment or control that the community has over decisions that affect their lives.
This is what distinguishes meaningful participation from superficial participation. With this in mind, the various forms of participation can properly be compared (refer to tables 1 and 2).

Table I. Typology of participation in development programs

Typology	Components of each type
1. Passive participation	People participate by being told what is going to happen, or has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by the administration or project management, without listening to people's responses. The information being shared belongs only to external professionals.
2. Participation in information giving	People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researchers using questionnaire surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings, as the findings of the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.
3. Participation by consultation	People participate by being consulted, and external agents listen to views. These external agents define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people's responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any share in decision-making, and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people's views.
4. Participation for material incentives	People participate by providing resources, for example, labor, in return for food, cash or other material incentives. Much on-farm research falls into this category, as farmers provide the fields but are not involved in the experimentation or the process of learning.
5. Functional participation	People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related to the project, which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organization. Such involvement usually occurs not at early stages of project cycles or planning but after major decisions have been made. These institutions tend to be dependent on external initiators and facilitators, but may become self-reliant.
6. Interactive participation	People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple perspectives and make use of systematic and structured learning processes. These groups take control over local decisions, and so people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices.
7. Self-mobilization	People participate by taking initiatives independent of external institutions to change systems. They develop contracts with external institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used. Such self-initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable distributions of wealth and power.

Pretty, et. al, 1995

Another typology of participation examines the specific relationship between farmers and scientists.

Table 2. Types of farmer participation in research

Mode	Objective
Contractual	Scientists contract farmers to provide land or service
Consultative	Scientists consult farmers about their problems and then develop solutions
Collaborative	Scientists and farmers collaborate as partners in the research process
Collegial	Scientists work to strengthen farmers' informal research and development systems in rural areas

Pretty, et. al, 1995

These typologies may be of use when evaluating the degree of participation in on-going projects. They can also be used as guide for designing new CBCRM initiatives.