10.0 Bibliography

Introduction

In this wide ranging topic a full bibliography is potentially so long that it would be of little practical use. Articles, books and journals have been selected to exemplify the sources of information and ideas used in this study. Many of them are of varying significance and are also appropriate to several parts of the test. Brief comments and outlines are given for the references to assist in any further exploration by readers. The number of references given in each cited reference is also quoted for such further researches, aimed at more detailed points.

In such a wide study the use of 'On line' computer information systems was attempted, but for some of the specialised enquiries only a few references were found in these pilot studies. It is therefore expected that the prediction of effects of pollutants on a variety of complex materials will depend very much on general practical and chemical knowledge, rather than in searching for particular precise studies. These will become available only when preservation research becomes prolific.

Air pollution and aspects of polymer degradation
Cook I
ICCM Bulletin 1975 2 (4) 4-20
A useful review article. Natural sources of sulphur dioxide from oxidation of hydrogen sulphide from rotting are significant. Rosin sizing of papers increases the absorption of sulphur dioxide. Parchment, vellum and vegetable tanned leathers are less likely to be damaged by sulphur dioxide. Ozone attack of rubbers and cellulose derivatives (methyl cellulose) is noted, it also sensitises the oxidation of poly(ethylene) . Nitrogen oxides are particulary noted for their attack on polyamides (nylons) (15 refs)

Air pollution from the oxides of nitrogen in the United Kingdom
Derwent R G. Stewart H N M
Atmospheric Environment 1973 7 385-401
Sources and detailed distributions are presented and related to the USA and world figures. Electricity generation, industry and transport are the main sources. Rain eliminates and limestones absorb it. (Traffic is likely to be the main source near urban areas .) (39 refs)

A simple test to identify gases which destroy silver images
Weyde E
Photographic Science and Engineering 1972 16 283-286
Brown spots on silver images were associated with oxidising gases and formaldehyde. Traffic and packaging materials, especially newly made plastics are suspected. Extreme care is necessary in selecting photographic packaging materials. A sensitivity test is described. (3 refs)

A rapid test for the detection of substances which will tarnish silver
Daniels V D, Ward S
Studies in Conservation 1982 27 58-62
Substances containing sulphur might emit hydrogen sulphide and so form black silver sulphide on silver. Quick identification is possible by their catalytic effect on the breakdown into bubbles as sodium azide solution. Photographic storage materials can be quickly tested but safety precautions are necessary. (5 refs)

Trouble in store
Padfield T. Erhardt D, Hopwood D
IIC Science and technology in the service in conservation
Washington 1982 24-27
A wide ranging but detailed account of the effects of pollutant emissions on historic objects. Extensive examples are given. Pollutants from woods, papers, boards, varnishes, cleaning materials, biocides, paints, adhesives, textiles, and plastics are discussed. Cellulose acetate may after a critical Lime decompose very rapidly, but samples from different batches varied greatly.

Residential wood burning and air pollution
Quraishi T A
Int. J. Environmental Studies 1985 24 19-33
A useful summary of the complex combustion processes and products, eg very fine particulates, oxides of nitrogen, some sulphur dioxide, many volatile organics including aldehydes. Wood burning and rubbish incineration creates many substances harmful to records. (47 refs)

Formaldehyde release rate coefficients from selected consumer products
Pickerell J A, Mokler B V, Griffis L C, Hobbs C H. Bathija A
Envron. Sci. Technol. 1983 17 753-757
Many consumer products release formaldehyde (methanal) into the air. Examples include pressed wood products (chip board), textile fabrics, carpets, new clothes, fibreglass insulation.

The ozone fading of traditional natural organic colorants on paper
Whitmore P M, Cass G R. Druzik J R
Journal of the American Institute of Conservation 1987 26 45-48
Extensive studies of pigments exposed to similar urban Californian atmospheres for 12 weeks showed extensive fading. Indigo, madder lakes, Dragon's Blood and circumin were strongly affected. The exposure approximated to eight years in a showcase in an air conditioned building. (20 refs)

The damaging influence of disinfecting agents on sensitive ancient materials
Jedrzejewska H
IIC Climatology Conference London 1967 95-100
A useful review of the chemical effects and degradation caused by five biocides, p dichlorbezene, DDT, pentachlorophenol chloronapthalene, p dichlormeta cresol. Pigments and papers may be affected. Sealed containers may trap harmful vapours. Much more testing is needed. (24 refs)

Air pollution and the archivist
Daniels V D
J. Soc. Archivists 1979 6 154-156
A general review of the effects of hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, water, organic compounds, especially acids, on metals, pigments, skin products and paper. The need to test materials is stressed. Wrapping layers of pure cellulose paper absorbs much pollution and protects the objects. (4 refs)

An unsuspected danger in display
Oddy W A
Museums Journal 1973 73 27-28
Lead and silver may be attacked by vapours from adhesives woods and textiles when enclosed, as in show cases or boxes. A test method is described to predict pollution damage, to assist designers in the British Museum. (3 refs)

The chemistry of atmospheric pollution
Haagen-Smit A J
IIC Climatology Conference London 1967 89-94
A useful general review noting the unusual chemical reactions at very low concentrations. Filtrations and scrubbing (water washing) do not remove all the pollutants, notably ozone and oxide of nitrogen. Dust filters followed by activated charcoal filters are recommended The fading of some dyed fabrics and the effects on stone, metals and rubbers are discussed. (9 refs)

Studies on the nature of urban air pollution
Waller R E
IIC Climatology Conference London 1967 65-68
In a general review, the large proportion of very fine particles is noted. Smoke levels inside naturally ventilated buildings are similar to those outside. Sulphur dioxide is absorbed onto walls and textiles. Humans cause emissions of ammonia leading to particulate ammonium suphate crystal deposition. The humidifiers in an art gallery air conditioning system removed some sulphur dioxide. (2 refs)

Control of atmospheric pollutants and maintenance of stable climatic conditions within museum buildings
Carver T H
IIC Climatology Conference London 1967 23-29
The merits of various filtration devices are considered. Absorbtion figures for various gases and activated charcoal are given. (8 refs)

Wood coatings for display and storage
Miles C
Studies in Conservation 1986 31 114-124
Emissions from various woods and coatings were studied. Many examples of unsuitable materials were listed. Corrosion is the major risk, though at less than 50% RH it is much reduced. (38 refs)

Indoor air pollution-effects on cultural and historic materials
Baer N S. Banks P N
Int. J. Museum Managament & Curatorship 1985 4 9-20
An important comprehensive review covering most materials and pollutants of external and internal origin. Pollution levels and means of reducing them are discussed. Various official standards are outlined and considered.

Preservation of photographs
Eastman Kodak Company 1979 ISBN 0 87985 212 7
A full comprehensive and practical review of photographic materials, processes, storage conditions and preservation. Micro and macro environments are considered in detail. Coloured films and prints are best kept at a low temperature and a low humidity.

Air pollution-a review for conservation chemists
Thomson G
Studies in Conservation 1954 147-166
A thorough review of most forms of atmospheric pollution with a useful discussion of the efficiency of filters. (49 refs)

The museum environment
Thomson G
1986 2nd ed Butterworth & Co ISBN 0 408 01536 5
This edition updates experience with environmental control. This comprehensive work includes a useful chapter on air pollution, its sources, effects and removal. Details of filtration and absorption are discussed.

Indoor climate
McIntyre D A
1980 Applied Science Publishers (London) ISBN 0 85334 868 5
This comprehensive work contains a chapter on air quality and discusses internal and external pollution.

Preservation of historical records
National Research Council
1986 National Academic Press USA ISBN 0 309 03681X
This important book pays particular attention to pollution and environmental matters, including discussion of standards for clean air and chapters on photographic materials and magnetic recording media.

Sorption of sulphur dioxide by indoor surfaces and wallpapers
Spedding D J. Rowlands R P
J. Applied Chemistry 1970 20 143-146
Sulphur dioxide is absorbed and retained by paper. Coatings reduce the capacity greatly. Deposits of perspiration (sweat) also absorb sulphur dioxide. (9 refs)

Alkaline material liberated into atmosphere from new concrete
Toishi K, Kenjo T
J. Paint Technology 1967 39 152-155
Odours from concrete are considered to be extremely fine particles of alkaline oxides and silica. They penetrate cellophane films and affect drying oils, silk fibres, indigo dyed silk and glue bound lead oxide pigments on paper. (Many archive materials will be affected by such fine dusts).

Chain scission by small concentrations (1-5ppm) of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide respectively in presence of air and near ultraviolet light.
Jellinek H H G
J. Air Pollution Control Association 1970 20 672-674
Vinyl polymers are not much affected by sulphur dioxide in these conditions but nylon (polyamide) and elastomers (rubbers) are affected. Poly(ethylene) and poly(propylene) become crosslinked ie. harder. (14 refs)

Air pollution by particles
Shaw R W
Scientific American August 1987 84-91
An awareness article about the origin of ultra fine particulates and their acidic nature. Their sulphates and chlorides from the seas travel long distances and are more acidic than the coarser particles. Acidic fine particles are traced to coal burning. (Ultra fine particles are very difficult to remove from air, and are found at very remote rural sites).

Air conditioning for museums
Harvey J
Museum Journal 1973 73 11-16
Temperature, humidity and pollution control are discussed with practical details. (12 refs)

Particles in the atmosphere - natural and man made
Davies C N
Atmospheric Environment 1974 8 1069-1079
A usesful survey indicating the widespread pollution by extremely fine particles, much of which is produced from trees, forest fires, vegetation, algae and marine plankton and by polymerisation by light of terpene compounds from pine trees. Industrial and urban sources are also noted, but are largely localised. Of the coarser particles many of these are also of natural origin ie. from ash, smoke, ground dust, spores, fibres skin scales, and salts from the seas. (Whilst recognising the great importance of industrial pollution, there will still be a general problem even if man made pollution were ever stopped.) (29 refs)

Selecting safe materials for use in the display and storage of antiquities
Blackshaw S M, Daniels V D
ICOM Conservation Committee Conference Zagreb 1978 78/23/2/1-9
Discusses testing of materials for storage and the absorption of ethanoic (acetic) acid on glass and silica gel. (18 refs)

Choosing materials for prolonged proximity to museum objects
Hopwood W R
A I C Preprints Toronto 1979 44-49
Test procedures to detect volatile acidic materials are described. Useful results are obtained in 4 days. (4 refs)

Microenvironments
Baer N S. Banks P N
Int. J. of Museum Management & Curatorship 1987 6 301-305
This discussion article considers the characteristics of many types of enclosure and the materials used. The extent of free air space and the desirability of venting boxes is considered. (10 refs)

Some aspects of the conservation of works of art in buildings of new concrete
Toishi K, Kenjo T
Studies in Conservation 1975 20 118-122
Extremely fine alkaline dusts arise from concrete and affect drying oils, silk, painted paper, and the calibration of hair hygrometers. Buildings as old as ten years may continue to be polluted in this way. (4 refs)

Concentration, decay rates and removal of ozone and their relation to establishing clean indoor air
Subersky R H. Sinema D A, Shair F H
Environmental Science & Technology 1973 7 347-353
Studies in offices, homes and test chambers show that ozone decays faster in the presence of cotton or wool. In air conditioning systems activated charcoal is very efficient but glass fibre filters were ineffective. Ventilation may add considerably to the internal ozone levels. (27 refs)

Carbonyl sulphide-potential agent of atmospheric sulphur corrosion
Graedel T E, Kammlott G W. Franey J P
Science 1981 212 663-664
Carbonyl sulphide occurs in similar concentrations over wide areas, unlike other sulphur pollutants. Natural sources are predominant, but it arises from microbial activity, volcanoes, burning vegetation and industrial processes. (31 refs)

Measurement of the effect of air pollution on paper documents
Langwell W H
J. Soc. Archivists 1978 372-373
Describes a simple test strip which changes colour as sulphur dioxide pollution is absorbed. It is proposed as a simple monitoring device for archives.

Indoor/outdoor ozone concentrations at a contemporary art gallery
Davies T D, Ramer B. Kaspyrok G. Delany A C
J. Air Pollution Control Association 1984 34 135-137
Ozone attacks cellulose and proteins. It decays to oxygen at various surfaces in the building, cellulose is particularly effective. Air conditioning may not reduce the ozone concentration, as found at the Sainsbury Centre at Norwich (UK).

Disclouration of black and white photographic prints
Feldam L H
J. Applied Photographic Engineering 1981 7 1-9
Environmental effects noted include the effects of applied alkyd paints and the general use of cosmetics. (Alkyd drying and chemistry is similar to that of drying oils.) (22 refs)

Historical survey of research at the National Bureau of Standards in materials for archival records
Wilson W K, Parks E J
Restaurator 1983 5 191-241
In a very comprehensive survey much original work is summarised, notably on acidity, the stability of cellulose acetate, microfilm and magnetic tape. (177 refs)

Decomposition rates of ozone in living areas
Mueller F X, Loeb L, Mapes W H
Env. Science & Technology 1973 7 342-346
Ozone decays naturally, but more slowly at lower humidities and temperatures. Furnishings assist greatly in eliminating ozone. Half lives of 1 to 30 minutes are indicated. (It seems probable that ozone would not affect materials in boxes in an archive.)

The testing of materials for use in storage and display
Blackshaw S M, Daniels V D
The Conservator (UKIC) 1979 3 16-19
Emissions of organic acids and hydrogen sulphide from woods, wool protein, and sulphur dyes are discussed. Polymers with acetate or chlorides may also emit corrosive substances. The corrosion of samples of copper, silver and lead forms the basis of a test for storage materials by exposure in a hot humid atmosphere. Acidity in organic materials such as paper and boards is tested by measuring the pH of aqueous extract. Regular testing continues at the British Museum. (10 refs)

Volatile amines used as corrosion inhibitors in museum humidification systems
Volent P. Baer N S
Int. J. Curatorship & Management 1985 4 359-364
Humidification by atomising and spraying of tap water causes mineral dust to be scattered around. If instead treated boiler water is used, the treatment chemicals may also be dispersed. Possible examples are - sodium hexametaphosphate, hydrazine, morpholine and diaminoethanol. Significant health problems occur and oily films have been found on many museum objects.

The oxidation of cellulose by ozone in small concentrations
Bogaty H. Campbell K S. Appell W D
Textile Research Journal 1952 81-83
Ozone at typically atmospheric concentrations damages wet cotton, in 50 days a 20% loss of strength was found. Dry cotton was hardly affected. (Dry conditions often reduce chemical degradation.) (9 refs)

Archive buildings: international comparisons
Thomas D L
J. Soc. Archivists 1988 9 38-44
A discussion paper pointing out the problems of old and new buildings and the need for adequate control over ventilation. (37 refs)

The problems of formaldehyde in museum collections
Hatchfield P B. Carpenter J M
Int. J. Museum Management & Curatorship 1986 5 183-188
Formaldehyde is emitted by many materials for long periods of time. Urea formaldehyde glues are the most probable. Its active reducing powers can alter images and harden proteins. After the oxidisation it becomes formic acid which attacks metals and objects containing calcium carbonate. Silica gel and activated carbon are not very effective absorbents. This is a most useful publication. (14 refs)

Certain deterioration factors for works of art and simple devices to monitor them
Kenjo T
Int. J. Museum Management & Curatorship 1986 5 295-300
Attention is drawn to the effects of dust and volatile components as pollutants. Simple Lest strips are proposed, with linseed oil, a selection of pH indicators, a dyestuff and lead oxide. Such testing methods can be used by organisations without extensive analytical facilities.

International Standards

ISO 6051 - Storage of photographic prints
ISO 5466 - Storage of safety photographic film