Trees

APPENDIX C

Tropical Timber, Fuel, and Fruit Species

Tropical Timber and Fuelwood Trees

Betulaceae

Alnus nepalensis

Family

Betulaceae

General Description and Distribution

Alnus is a large tree with thick bark. It grows quickly and may fix atmospheric nitrogen. Native to Burma, the Himalayas, and China, it has been successfully propagated in the tropical upland forests of Hawaii.

Use

The wood is primarily used for firewood. It has a specific gravity of 0.32-0.37. It burns evenly but rapidly, and coppices well.

Environmental Requirements

The trees grow on cool, moist, tropical highland climates between 1,000-3,000 m in elevation. Soil moisture rather then soil type is a factor affecting growth.

Propagation and Care

The tree is best started in the nursery and then transplanted. Care should be taken to avoid damage caused by beetle larvae and borers.

Burseraceae

Bursera simaruba

Family

Burseraceae

General Description and Distribution

Bursera is an erect, straight tree when grown in the jungle but tends to be lower and broader when planted in the open. It reaches 20-30 m with a trunk diameter of 75 cm. It is highly esteemed in Central America and Caribbean for its use as fuel and fence posts.

The tree is virtually unknown outside of the Americas.

Use

The wood is used for firewood and charcoal. Other uses include boxes and crates, soles, light furniture, and toothpicks. In the Caribbean it is used for live fences. In the southern United States it is planted as an ornamental.

Environmental Requirements

The tree requires a tropical to subtropical climate, and grows between from sea level to 1,800 m. Rainfall should be no less than 500 mm a year. It has no particular soil requirements.

Propagation and Care

The tree regenerates itself through natural seeding, and is tolerant of weeds. Strong winds will often snap branches allowing the infestation of fungus. Cut logs should be thoroughly dried or treated with fungicide.

Casuarina littoralis

Casuarina equisetifolia

Common name

Casuarina, she oak, Australian pine, ironwood, whistling pine, agoho (Philippines), nokonoko (Fiji)

Family

Casuarina littoralis

General Description and

Distribution

Rapid growing, carefree species for sites and climates as varied as coastal sand dunes, high mountain slopes, hot humid tropics and semi-arid regions. The species is salt tolerant and adaptable to moderately infertile soils. Although the species is not a legume, it has the ability to form root nodules and fix nitrogen. The tree can attain heights of up to 50 m, with diameters of up to 1 m. It normally reaches a height of 15-25 m tall.

Casuarina species are native to the Southern Hemisphere from tropical India to Polynesia, It has thrived when introduced in Pacific Island countries.

Use

The wood is primarily used as firewood. It burns with great heat and has been called the best firewood in the world. It is used for both domestic and industrial fuel. It has a specific gravity of 0.8-1 2 and a calorific value of 4,950 kcal per kg. In the Philippines the tree commonly grows two to three meters a year. The yield per hectare varies from 75-200 tons on a rotation of seven to ten years, with a spacing between plants of approximately two meters.

Because the timber is strong, it is also used for house posts, rafters, electric poles, mine props, roofing shingles, tool handles, oars, etc. It is also used to control erosion on soils with high concentrations of salt. A two to three deep belt of Casuarinas is an effective wind break.

Environmental Requirements

Casuarina thrives in a temperature range of 10 to 33 degrees centigrade. It can be planted from sea level up to 1,500 m, with an annual rainfall between 700 to 2,000 mm. The species has known to survive with as little as 200 to 300 mm or as much as 5,000 mm.

Since the species has root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing microorganisms it is not dependent on soil nitrogen for good growth. It tolerates calcareous and slightly saline soils, but does not do well on heavy clay soils.

Propagation and Care

Seedlings are normally transplanted to the field. Transplanting is normally carried out at the beginning of rainy season in order to ensure adequate moisture. It is necessary to control weed growth until the trees are firmly established. Inoculate the seeds prior to planting. Because the species is aggressive it is necessary to control growth in order to protect other species in the area planted.

Combretaceae

Terminalia catappa

Family

Combretaceae

General Description and Distribution

Terminalia is a medium-sized tree with large reddish leathery, leaves. It bears edible, almond shaped fruits. Because it is resistant to salt spray, it is found growing along coastal areas.

The tree is found throughout the islands of the Tropical Pacific.

Use

Although the tree is commonly used for shade and ornamental purposes, it also makes a good firewood. It has a specific gravity of 0.59 and can be expected to yield approximately 22.5-36.0 to a hectare over a ten year period.

The wood is also attractive and hard which makes for sturdy furniture, tools, boats, and construction material. The seeds are often eaten roasted or raw, and also produce oil. The bark, leaves, roots, and fruits contain tannin. The leaves have been successfully fed to silkworms.

Because the tree is tolerant of saline conditions, it has been used to control beach erosion.

Environmental Requirements

Terminalia grows best in areas with rainfall between 1,500 mm to 10,000 mm. It can withstand flooding as well as drought. It is found growing up to 1,800 m, and in various types of soil.

Propagation and Care

Direct seeding is the most common method of propogation, although seedlings are also easily transplanted from a nursery. If direct seeding the seeds should be sown during the onset of the rainy season.

Germination normally occurs after 2-3 weeks. Once established, the tree shades out weeds. Care should be taken to control the spread of its seeds, as it soon becomes a weed and shades out other favorable species.

Eecearpaceae

Muntingia calabura

Family

Elaeocarpaceae

General Description and Disrtibution

Muntingia is a small fast-growing evergreen tree with a dense, spreading crown and drooping branches. It reaches 8-13 m tall with a trunk 8.5-20 cm in diameter. It bears a cherry like fruit in 1.5-2 years from seed. The fruits are 1 cm wide, round, and deep red, with a sweet light-brown pulp filled with small seeds

It is native to Central and South America, but has been planted throughout the Pacific Islands

Use

The tree is primarily used for firewood. It ignites quickly, and produces an intensely hot flame with little smoke. It is also used for beautification and shading purposes. The fruit produced by the tree is sweet and juicy, It has also been considered for use as paper pulp.

Environmental Requirements

The tree grows best in humid, tropical areas at an altitude between 500-1,300 m. Rainfall requirements range between 1,000-2,000 mm

The tree adapts easily to many different types of soil types. In the Pacific it is recommended for planting in the sandy coral soils of the low islands and atolls.

Propagation and Care

The tree is best established when cuttings are planted. Weeds are controlled by the dense tree canopy. It is recommended the tree be pruned on an annual basis as the branches tend to break under strong winds. It also becomes a nuisance if its growth is not controlled.

Leguminosse

Derris indica

Family

Legum i nosee

General Description and Distribution

A medium-sized, decidous tree with numerous pods, each containing a single seed. The species is generally used for fuel wood, yet is also valuable as a check against erosion.

Although native to the Indian subcontinent, it can also be found in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands.

Use

The wood is primarily used as firewood. It has a caloric value of 4,600 keel per kg. The trees often reach adult height in 4 to 5 years. The leaves of the tree are also used as fodders for animals. Pasture grasses also grow well in its shade. When dried, the leaves are used to protect stored grains because the odor repels insects. The leaves are also ploughed into the soil as a green manure and are thought to control insect predation on crops. The oil from the seed is used as a lubricant as well as fuel in kerosene lamps. The remaining presscake can be fed to poultry, or used as an insecticide.

Environmental Requirements

Derris indica withstands temperatures from O to 50 degree centigrade, and thrives up to 1,200 m above sea level. Approximately 500 to 2,500 mm per year of rainfall is required. The tree will grow in almost all soil types. It is highly tolerant of saline conditions.

Propogation and Care

The tree can be propagated from direct seeding or cuttings. A cutting placed directly in the ground will develop roots. Shade nor crowding are problems. The species is known to host both insects and fungus. Care should be taken in where the tree is planted. Its aggressive root system will create serious weed problems.

Gliricidia septum

Common Name

Madre de cacao

Family

Legum inosae

General Description and Distribution

A small tree that grows up to 10 m high and 30 cm or less in diameter. It is a fast growing species that grows well in congested areas. It is good as fuelwood, fixes nitrogen, and enriches poor soils.

It grows in the West Indies, Africa, Asia, and South America. It is especially popular in the Philippines.

Use

Although it is an especially good firewood, gliricidia septum also produces fine furniture, and sturdy farm implements. It is also used as fence posts and construction material. The tree is especially appropriate as a living fence. Trimming the fence every other month provides luxuriant growth, green manure, and fodder for ruminants. The tree is toxic to other animals. The tree also provides excellent shade for coffee and cacao. The foliage can be cut and used as a green manure and mulch around the base of the trees. The flowers are also known to be a good forage for bees and thus can be used in conjunction with a honey bee operation.

Environmental Requirements

The trees withstand temperatures from 22 to 30 degrees centigrade, and thrive up to 1,600 m above sea level. Approximately, 1,500 to 2,300 mm per year of rainfall is required. The tree will grow in moist and dry soil. Excessive alkalinity is not a limitation to growth.

Propagation and Care

The tree can be raised by direct seeding. Soak the seeds in hot water overnight, and plant the next morning. The tree attracts aphids and ants. It is toxic to nonruminants.

Sesbania sesban

Family

Legum inosee

General Description and Distribution

Sesbania is a shrub or small tree that grows 4.5-6 m high. It produces flowers and seedpods. It is a fast growing, short-lived tree that regenerates rapidly after pruning. It produces root nodules and fixes atmospheric nitrogen.

It is believed to be one of the first garden plants cultivated in Egypt. It is now grown in Asia.

Use

The tree is used for firewood, food, fodder, wood, and fiber. When grown for f irewood it has produced 30 tons per hectare. The flowers can be eaten as a vegetable. The leaves and branches are cut and fed to cattle. As a wood, it has been split and plaited into mats, It can also be used in the construction of roofs It is often used as a substitute for bamboo. The bark is used in rope making.

The tree also makes an excellent wind break and provides shade for vegetable gardens, and other shade loving plants such as coffee. When intercropped, it provides nitrogen to the soil. Harvested leaves can be composted and mixed into a soil mixture for nurseries.

Environmental Requirements

The species requires a mean temperature of 10 to 45 degrees Centigrade. It has grown up to an altitude of 1,200 m. Rainfall can vary between 350-1,000 mm annually.

It tolerates a wide range of soils, withstanding acid soil, flooding, and waterlogging.

Propagation and Care

The tree can be propagated from seed. No pre-treatment is necessary. Weed during the first two or three months after emergence, and protect the seedlings from foraging animals.

Leguminosea (Mimesoideae)

Acacia aurienlitormis

Family

Leguminosae (Mimosoideae)

General Description and Distribution

Resilient, vigorously growing, small tree with a trunk up to 60 cm in diameter. It can reach a height of 30 cm. Grows well on poor soils. The species is native to the savannas of Papua New Guinea, the islands of the Torres Strait, and the northern areas of Australia. It has been successfully propagated in Indonesia and Malaysia.

Use

Large fuelwood plantations have been established in Indonesia. The species is well suited for fuelwood, with a high specific gravity (0.6-0.75) and a calorific value of 4,800-4,900 keel per kg. The wood yield excellent charcoal that glows well and burns without smoke or sparks. The trees do not coppice well unless cut 50 cm above the ground. Cut over stands regenerate rapidly. The tree grow quickly even in unmanaged plots on poor soils. In Papua New Guinea, trees grew to 6 m in 2 years, with a diameter of 5 cm. The species is also a good source of pulpwood, and provides shade.

Environmental Requirements

Thrives in humid climates with a temperature range between 26 and 30 degrees centigrade. It can also survive in dry areas. Its natural habitat has an average annual rainfall varying from 1,500 to 1,800 mm and a dry season of 6 months. It grows at altitudes up to 600 m. Soil is not a major concern. The tree will grow in sand dunes, shist, clay limestone, podsols, laterite, and lateritic soils. Because of nitrogen fixing nodules, it can survive on land very low in nitrogen.

Propagation and Care

Plant can be established through direct seeding or nursery propagation. Because the seedlings are hardy, planting sites require very little preparation and maintenance. The plants are shade intolerant so it is important to clear weeds. Before sowing seeds scarify in boiling water, then soak for 24 hours. Insects and disease are not a problem in Indonesia.

Acacia decurrens

Family

Leguminosae (Mimosoideae)

General Description and Distribution

This acacia is a strong tree with upright growth, usually reaching 6-12 m in height. During flowering season slender seedpods are produced which snap open and throw the seeds. It produces good fuelwood and charcoal, as well as fixes nitrogen. It is native to Australia but has been successfully propagated in Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

Use

The wood has a specific gravity of 0.50-0.70 and a caloric potential of 3,530-3,940 kcal per kg. It yields approximately 6-16 m per ha per year.

The wood is also used for constuction materials, tanning, and as a shelterbelt.

Environmental Requirements

Acacia flourishes in a temperature range of 12-25 degrees centigrade. The tree may grow up to 2,500 m above sea level. The mean annual rainfall required by the species is 9002,600 mm. It prefers deep, medium to well drained, moderately fertile soils.

Propagation and Care

The tree spreads by seeds and root suckers. Seeds germinate in 7-10 days, and seedlings can be transplanted in 5- 7 months. Seeds should be soaked in water two hours prior to sowing. Weeds are not a problem as the tree quickly shades out any surounding vegetation. The tree must be controlled in order to prevent its unchecked spread.

AIbizia faleataria

Family

Leguminosee (Mimosoidae)

General Description and Distribution

Albizia, commonly known as falcata, is a fast growing tree that forms a large canopy with white flowers. Under favorable conditions it reaches 15 m in height in 3 years, 30 m in 10 years, and 44 m in 17 years.

It is native to Papua New Guinea, West Irian, the Solomon Islands, and the Moluccas. It is extensively grown on plantations in the Philippines and in Fiji.

Use

The wood is used for firewood, but is better used for charcoal. It has a specific gravity of 0.24-0.49, and caloric content of 2,865-3,357 kcal per kg. On good soils growth can be up to 50 m per ha per year.

The wood is also processed into f iber and particle board. In the Philippines it is ground into pulp and made into newspaper. The tree is also used to provide shade for animals and heat sensitive crops. In Java it is planted in home gardens as a source of timber and firewood.

Environmental Requirements

Falcata requires a temperature range of 22-29 degrees centigrade. It grows up to 1,500 m but performs best below 800 m. The best growth has been recorded in areas with annual rainfall of 4,500 mm and no prolonged dry season. Deep, well drained soils with high fertility provide the

best medium for strong, healthy growth.

Propagation and Care

The tree regenerates itself through natural seeding which takes place after 3 to 4 years. Prior to planting the seeds should be scarified in hot water, and wrapped in a wet sack or cloth for 24 hours. It is necessary to weed the area surrounding the seedling for at least one year.

The tree is exceptionally vulnerable to strong winds, which tend to break limbs. Broken limbs often result in fungal attack and death. Insects can also be a problem.

Because the tree has massive roots, it should not be planted on steep hillsides. Large roots tend to exacerbate soil erosion on steep slopes rather than prevent it.

Calliandra calotlyrsus

Common name

Calliandra

Family

Leguminosae (M imoso i deae)

General Description and

Distribution

Fast growing tree with good coppicing ability. Rarely reaches more than 10 m tall and 20 cm in diameter and can be harvested after one year. The plant is native to Central America but has thrived in Southeast Asia.

Use

The wood is primarily used as firewood. It has a specific gravity of 0.51-0.78, its calorific value is 4,500-4,750 kcal per kg, and its ash content is 1.8 percent. Indonesian experiments have shown growth of 2.5-3.5 m in six to nine months After one year's growth it can be cut as short as 50 cm above the ground. Reported yields are 5-20 m3 per ha. from the first cutting, and 35 to 65 m3 in the following years. Because the species grows quickly, has dense foilage and a deep root system, it is particularly suited for controlling soil erosion on slopes and rejuvenating worn out land. In East Java, farmers rotate agricultural crops with calliandra, and feed the leaves to livestock.

Environmental Requirements

The temperature range for the crop is unknown. It thrives between 150 and 1,500 m above sea level. Although the tree can survive drought, it grows best where rainfall exceeds 1,000 mm per year. The tree prospers on almost any type of soil

Propagation and Care

Plantations can be established by either direct seeding or by seedlings. Seeds should be planted at the beginning of the wet season in order to ensure emergence and fast growth. If transplanted, the seedlings should be moved when four to six months old. Plant spacing in the field is 2 m x 2 m or 1 m x 1 m. Scarify the seeds in hot water then soak in room temperature water for 24 hours. Be careful not to overplant in sensitive areas for the plant is so hardy it will difficult to keep in check.

Leucaena leucocephala

Famitly

Leguminosae (Mimosoideae)

General Description and Distribution

The three principal types of Leucaena range in size from from bushes tro tall trees. All are thornless evergreens with feathery leaves, small white flowers and long green seed pods, which turn brown as they mature. Leucaena may grow less than 5 m to as high as 20 m. Although the tree is most productive in tropical and subtropical lowlands, it can also survive on rocky, steep slopes, in marginal soils and in well drained wet areas, as well as dry regions of the world. It not only provides fodder for livestock, but also produces fuel for fires and fertilizer for crops.

Leucaena originated in the midlands of southern Mexico and was introduced to the Pacific Islands, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea.

Leucaena is extensively used in the Philippines for firewood. Large acreages have been planted to provide fuel for electric generators, factories, and agricultural-processing facilities. It is fast growing, readily coppices, and has a calorific value of 4,200-4,600 keel per kg. Annual leucaena yields have ranged from 24 to over 100 m3 per hectare.

Leucaena has also proven to be an excellent feed for animals. Cattle, goats, water buffalo, and other animals have shown high weight gains when fed entirely on Leucaena. Although a sole diet of Leueaena can cause a mimosine related toxicity in the animals, this can be avoided with by supplementing the diet with other forages.

Because Leucaena is a nitrogen fixing legume, it helps enrich soil through its root nodules and from green manure produced by its leaves. Its foliage rivals manure in nitrogen content. In addition, its ability to thrive on steep slopes, in marginal soils, and in areas with extended dry seasons makes it an excellent species for reforestation programs.

Environmental Requirements

Leucaena thrives in frost free areas below 500 m. It will grow above 500 m but without the same vigor. Annual rainfall requirements range between 600-1,700 mm, although it has been observed growing in areas with less than 250 mm. The plant tolerates a wide variety of soil conditions, but grows best in neutral or alkaline soils.

Propagation and Care

Leucaena grows quickest when direct seeded or transplanted at the onset of rainy season. Prior to planting soak the seeds in hot water for 2-3 minutes. To further increase seed viability continue to soak the seeds in room temperature water for an additional 2-3 days. During the early stages of growth it is necessary to control weeds. Once the seedlings are established they shade out weeds. Leucaena is resistant to pests and disease.

Mimosa scabrella

Family

Legum inosae (Mimosoideae)

General Description and Distribution

A thornless shrub or slender tree that grows to 12 m high and 20-40 cm in diameter. It is rapidly growing tree that is little known outside of South America.

Mimosa scabrella is native to southeastern Brazil, but has been successfully propagated in other tropical and subtropical countries.

Use

The tree is primarily used for firewood. In 14 months it grows to 5 m tall; in 2 years, 8-9 m; and in 3 years it sometimes attains a height of 15 m. Plantations have harvested in rotations as short as 3 years.

Other uses include pulp for writing paper, beautification, live fences, and green manure.

Environmental Requirements

It is native to cool, subtropical plains, but can also survive in warm, drier areas. In Guatemala it flourishes at 2,400 m. The tree grows in many types of well-drained soils. Wet soils stunt its growth.

Propagation and Care

The tree can be propagated through direct seeding. Three or four seeds are planted at depths of 3-4 cm, and at distances of 2-3 m.

Agumiweae (Papilionoideae)

Sesbania bispinosa

Family

Leguminosae (Papilionoideae)

General Description and Distribution

Sesbania is a spreading shrub-like plant that grows tall and straight in crowded stands. It may reach 4 meters in 5- 6 months. Because it grows quickly and produces nodules, it is possible to produce a firewood crop as well as enrich the soil for a rotational crop.

It is native to tropical and subtropical areas on the Indian subcontinent, but has been successfully propagated in Southeast Asia.

The tree is primarily used for firewood. Seeds produce a gum used in textiles, paper, and solutions. The wood can also be used to produce paper, fiber, green manure, and fodder.

Environmental Requirements

The tree grows in the tropics and subtropics from sea level up to 1,200 m. It is resistant to drought but grows best in regions with 550-1,100 m of rainfall. The tree is suitable to adverse soil conditions, including saline and alkaline soils.

Propagation and Care

Direct seeding is the quickest and best method of propagation. It grows so quickly it is used to control the spread of Imperata cylindrica.

Sesbania grandiflora

Family

Legum inosee (Papilionoideae)

General Description and Distribution

Sesbania grandiflora grows to a height of 10 m, with a trunk diameter of about 30 cm. It produces firewood, forage, pulp and paper, food, and green manure. It works well in agroforestry systems designed to control erosion and improve soil fertility.

The tree is native to many Asian countries and is normally seen growing along roadsides, and in vegetable gardens and rice fields.

Use

The tree is primarily used for firewood. Plantation grown trees have reached 8 m in 3 years with an average diameter of 10 cm. Wood yields have been as high as 20-25 m cubed per hectare per year. The tree is commonly used for beautification programs along roadsides. The young leaves, pods, and flowers are used in curries and soups or steamed, fried, or boiled.

The tree is also used to control the spread of Imperata cylindrica

Environmental Requirements

The tree grows in the tropics and subtropics from sea level up to 1,200 m. It is resistant to drought but grows best in regions with 550-1,100 m of rainfall. The tree is suitable to adverse soil conditions including saline and alkaline soils.

Propagation and Care

Direct seeding is the quickest and best method of propagation. Once established it shades out weeds.

Malvaceae

Hibiscus tiliaceus

Family

Malvaceae

General Description and Distribution

The hibiscus is an evergreen that can grow 12 m tall. It has a short trunk and a broad, rounded crown. In wetlands it grows close to the ground, forming a low and sprawling mound.

It is commonly found grow ing just inshore of mangroves on the coastal fringe and extending up estuaries and rivers. It can be found in many parts of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands.

Use

Because the hibiscus is fast-growing it is principally used for firewood. When cut back, it quickly sprouts long stems. Because the wood is light, flexible, porous, easy to work, and durable in salt water, it is popular amongst fishermen. It is also used in constructing huts, tools, and fine furniture.

The bark of the wood is equally prized. It is often used for making rope and twine.

In several areas the tree is used to stabilize sand dunes and control erosion. It has an added effect of beautifying the surrounding landscape.

Environmental Requirements

The species grows well in warm, humid climates. It ranges in elevation from sea level to 500 m. It demands an average annual rainfall of approximately 1,400 mm. It grows in almost all soil types, and is highly salt tolerant.

Propagation and Care

The tree can be propagated from seeds or cuttings. In 2- 3 years the tree is large enough to shade out surrounding vegetation.

It is not susceptible to pests or diseases.

Meliaceae

Melia azedarach

Common Name

Chinaberry

Family

Meliaceae

General Description and Distribution

This is a medium sized deciduous tree, 6-30 m tall and 50-80 cm in diameter, which is popular as an ornamental and for fuelwood. It produces pale, purplish flowers, red berries, and dense, dark, green leaves. The tree is native to Asia

Use

Chinaberry is planted for firewood, reforestation programs, and veneer. Because the wood is soft it is used in furniture and other soft wood products. It has insecticidal properties, and the leaves can be fed to goats. The seeds are often used in bead making.

The specific gravity is about 0.66 (calorific value 5,043-5,176 keel per kg).

Environmental Requirements

The species grows in climates where the mean annual temperatures are at least 18 degrees centigrade. It grows up to 2,000 m as well as in the lowlands. Rainfall can vary between 600-1,000 mm annually. In drier climates the tree does well along bodies of water.

The tree grows on a wide range of soils. Best growth is obtained on well-drained, deep, sandy loams.

Propagation and Care

The tree can be propagated from seed or cuttings. Seedlings are normally transplanted after six months. To hasten germination, soak the seeds in water for several days.

The limbs are easily broken by strong winds, and the fruits are poisonous.

Myritaceae

Eucalyptus brassiana

Family

Myritaceae

General Description and Distribution

This species of Eucalyptus is a hardy, fast growing tree adapted to the lowland tropics. It grows from 7 to 15 m high on infertile soils, and to more than 30 m high on fertile soils. Approximately half the trunk grows fairly strait. The other half is usually twisted and contorted, and splits into several branches.

Eucalyptus brassiana is found in lowland areas in Papua New Guinea. It is being tested in other tropical areas.

Use

The wood is used for firewood and construction material. In experimental plots, it has grown as high as 7.6 m, with a diameter of 6.3 cm at 2.5 years of age.

Environmental Requirements

The natural habitat of the species is tropical and humid to subhumid. The tree can withstand temperatures of at least 32 degrees centigrade, and grows up to 650 m above sea level. It can tolerate a dry season of 3 to 5 months; minimum annual rainfall is 1,000 mm. Infertile soils are not considered a problem for the species. It grows on rocky slopes, inundated flats and depressions.

Propagation and Care

Seeds are first planted in a nursery, then transplanted after 6-10 weeks. For rapid growth the area must be free of weeds.

Euealyptus deglupta

Family

Myrataceae

General Description and Distribution

Eucalyptus deglupta is known in the Philippines as bagras, and in Papua New Guinea as kamarere. It is one of the world's fastest growing trees and is known to be capable of colonizing land eroded by landslides and destroyed by volcanic activity. It is a large tree which normally grows from 35-60 m high, with diameters of 0.5-2 m. The trunk is typically straight.

The tree is found in the southern Philippines and Papua New Guinea. It has been introduced into other tropical areas.

Use

The wood is normally too valuable to be used as firewood. However, because it grows so quickly it could be used fuel as well as timber. It has a specific gravity of 0 40-0.80. It can reach 44 m in height after 15 years, and under plantation conditions common yields are 2040 m3 per ha per year.

The wood is also good for heavy construction, furniture, and flooring.

Environmental Requirements

Temperature can vary between 32 degrees centigrade along coastal areas to 24 degrees centigrade in higher altitudes. Eucalyptus deglupta grows up to 1,800 m above sea level. Average annual rainfall is 2,5 00- 3,500 mm.

The trees prefers deep, moderately fertile, sandy loams.

Propagation and Care

The tree is first established in a nursery, then transplanted It normally flowers in 3-4 years The area surrounding the tree must be kept free of weeds for at least the first six months

Trees are attacked by termites, moths, ring bark borers, corded bug (Solomon Islands), ants, and stem and bark borers (Papua New Guinea and the Philippines)

The tree is sensitive to fire and drought.

Eucalyptus pellita

Family

Myritaceae

General Description and Distribution

Eucalyptus pellita is commonly known as red mahogany. It grows in humid and subtropical lowland regions. It is a medium to large tree, usually 20-25 m in height It has a large straight trunk with a heavily branched crown. If planted along a rocky coastline it w ill resemble a shrub.

The tree occurs between the northeastern and southeastern tip of Australia.

Use

The wood is suitable for charcoal and firewood. The density is 990 kg per m3, with a mean height of 13.7 m. The average diameter is 12.6 cm.

In addition to its use as a firewood, the wood can also be worked to produce fine furniture. The flowers are also suitable for honey bees .

Environmental Requirements

Maximum temperature is 33 degrees centigrade. It grows up to 750 m above sea level. Average annual rainfall is 900-2,300 mm.

The tree grows mainly on gentle to moderate, well drained topography, yet will survive on well drained, steep slopes. The species prefers sandy soils.

Propagation and Care

The tree can be direct seeded or transplanted. Weeds are not a problem as the plant is shade tolerant.

Eucalyptus robusta

Family

Myrtaceae

General Description and Distribution

This is one of the most w idely planted of the Eucalyptus trees. It attains heights of 25-30 m and diameters of 1-1.2 m. The trunk is straight and branch free for over the half the tree's height. The crown is typically dense. The tree is widely acknowledged for its ability to grow on adverse sites.

The tree grows from the equator to about latitude 35°.

Use

The wood is used for firewood and charcoal in several Asian and Pacific countries. It has a specific gravity of 0.70-0.80.

The wood is also suitable for plywood, construction material, shelterbelts, and pulp.

Environmental Requirements

In warm, humid climates, the tree will grow from sea level to 1,600 m. The amount of rainfall must be between 1,000 to 2,000 mm a year with a four month dry season.

It grows well in most soils. However, it grows poorly in droughty sands.

Propagation and Care

The tree is usually grown from seed in containers. The seedlings should be transplanted early in the rainy season. Weeds must be cleared during the first six months of growth. The tree may be attacked by a bacterium and termites. The tops of the trees may break during strong winds.

Eucalyptus tereticornis

Common Name

Red gum, blue gum, mountain gum

Family

Myttaceae

General Description and Distribution

This is one of the most widely planted of the Eucalyptus trees for firewood and timber purposes. It is a moderately large tree that attains a height of 30-45 m and a diameter of 1-2 m. The trunk is straight and the crown open. Small clusters of white flowers bloom every year, with heavy blooming every three to four years.

The tree grows in the savanna woodlands of Papua New Guinea, and has been introduced to many tropical countries in Asia. It is normally found in open forests or as scattered trees on alluvial flats and along stream banks.

Use

The wood is hard, heavy, and strong with a specific gravity of 0.75 or higher. It produces first class firewood and good charcoal. Being immune to termites and dry rot, it is a durable timber used in construction. It is considered one of the best trees for fiber for paper pulp and rayon.

The tree is also widely used as intercrop with various crops for the first 12 months after it is planted. In Central and South America, the tree is used to reclaim sand dunes. In Asia, the species is used extensively in afforestation and reforestation programs.

The leaves produce oil, and the flowers are an important source of nectar and pollen for honeybee colonies.

Environmental Requirements

The species occurs within a climatic range with mean annual temperatures from 17 to 38 degrees centigrade. The tree has been known to survive successive frosts. In warm, humid climates, the tree will grow from 600 to 1000 m. The tree can be planted in areas with a moderate to severe dry season. Optimum rainfall is 800 to 1,500 mm. It has survived in both extremes.

It grows best in deep, well drained, light textured soils that are neutral or slightly acid.

Propagation and Care

The tree is usually grown from seed in containers. The seedlings are transplanted at 15-25 cm, which takes approximately 3-4 months in the nursery. Although the species can compete with weeds, it is recommended weeds be cleared until the canopy closes. Periodically work the soil between the rows for good yield.

Eucalyptus urophylla

Family

Myritaceae

General Description and Distribution

Eucalyptus urophylla grows to approximately 50 m in height with a diameter of up to 2 m.

It is common to Indonesia, but is showing promise in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands.

Use

The wood is suitable for firewood. It yields 20-30 m3 per hectare per year. The wood is also used in construction.

Environmental Requirements

Temperature requirements vary between 18- 28 degrees centigrade. It is primarily a mountain species that grows best between 300 m -3,000 m. Rainfall can be as low as 1,300 mm, and as high as 2,500 mm. It grows best on deep, moist, free-draining, medium-to-heavy soils derived from noncalcareous rock.

Propagation and Care

In several experiments the species was grown in plastic bags and transplanted to the field after 55 to 75 days.

The species is susceptible to termites and cutting insects.

Melaleuca quinquenervia

Common Name

Broad-leaved tee tree, isouli

Family

Myrtaceae

General Description and Distribution

This is a fast growing tree that can tolerate wet soils. It grows at high planting densities, and quickly shades out competing vegetation. It has been grown up to 25 m tall, and if grown in dense stands will develop straight stems. It has a whitish, thick, and spongy bark, which splits and peels in layers, and becomes rough and shaggy. The leaves are aromatic, and have white flowers.

The tree grows in Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia, and has been propagated in other tropical countries.

Use

Only the bark of the wood is used for firewood. The wood can be used for pilings, railway ties, mine braces, posts, fences, flooring, rafters, and after proper seasoning, ornamental woodwork. In addition to firewood, when ground, the bark can be used as mixture in potting soil. Stands have produced 7,000-20,000 stems per hectare. Forty year old trees have been measured at 50 cm in diameter and 18 m in height.

Since the tree blooms throughout the year, it produces abundant pollen and nectar. The honey is valued in the baking industry and by health food dealers. When crushed, the leaves, twigs, and seed capsules produce an oil which is mixed with the oil from Melaleuca cajeputi to produce a pharmaceutical.

Environmental Requirements

The species grows in areas with mean annual temperatures ranging from 18 to 34 degrees centigrade. In Australia the tree occurs in low altitudes up to 500 m. In Hawaii, under wet conditions, it grows up to 1,400 m. Rainfall can vary between 1,000 mm to 5,000 mm.

The tree occurs on old and new alluvial soils, on shallow soils, and on infertile soils.

Propagation and Care

The seeds must be in wet soil to germinate. Seedlings compete well with weeds and after the first six months will begin to shade out competing vegetation.

Caution is required in planting the species as it will quickly crowd out native vegetation und become a nuisance.

Psidium guajava

Family

Myrtaceae

General Description and Distribution

Psidium guajava is commonly known as guava. It is a shrub or low-growing tree that can withstand repeated cuttings It produces a small, green fruits that makes excellent jam and juice.

Guava is indigenous to the American tropics but can be found throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands.

Use

The wood is both heavy and strong, and makes good firewood and charcoal. It has a specific gravity of 0.8, and caloric value of 4,792 kcal. When continually cut, the tree naturally regenerates itself.

Guava makes excellent jam, jelly, and juice. It has two to five times the vitamin C content of orange juice. Tea made from the leaves of the tree is considered medicinal. It is used to offset the effects of stomach pains associated with giardia and amoeba. The leaves are also used for dye and tanning.

The wood is also used in the construction of farm implements.

Environmental Requirements

Guava trees grow in the tropics from sea level to 1,500 m. It requires approximately 1,000 mm of rain, and ean withstand a dry season of 4-5 months.

Guava grows well in an acid and alkaline soils. Poor soil drainage is not a problem.

Propagation and Care

The tree can be grown from seeds or cuttings. Seeds germinate in 3-5 weeks. Because the plant is exceptionally hardy it can compete with weeds and partial shade.

The fruit is susceptible to fruit flies, mealy bugs, scale insects, and thrips. Wilt may occur when grown in soil with a pH above 7.5. Bark canker, diebaek, caterpillars, and mealy scale may kill branches.

Syzygium cumin)

Family

Myrtaeeae

General Description and Distribution

Syzygium is a large, fast growing tree with shiny, green, leathery leaves. Mature trees are on the average 13 m with a trunk diameter of approximately 1 m.

The tree is native to the Philippines, and has been introduced to many other tropical and subtropical countries.

Use

The tree is considered to be an excellent firewood. Its specific capacity is 0.77. Its calorific content is 4,800 kcal per kg. The wood is durable in water and resistant to termites. For this reason it is often used for farm tools, and in the construction of boats. The tree also produces a fruit which is eaten raw, or made into vinegar, jellies, or wine. In the Philippines the fruit is called duhat. When planted on the edge of animal yards the foliage provides shade and the fruit is readily devoured by the animals. Because of its wide canopy, syzygium is often used for shading. When planted in dense rows and periodically topped, it forms a strong windbreak.

Environmental Requirements

The tree grows well in areas with rainfall between 1,500 mm to 10,000 mm. It can withstand flooding as well as drought. It is found growing up to 1,800 m, and in various types of soil.

Propagation and Care

Direct seeding is the most common method of propagation, although syzygium is also easily transplanted from a nursery. If direct seeding the seeds should be sown during the onset of the rainy season. Germination normally occurs after 2-3 weeks. Once established, the tree shades out weeds. Care should be taken to control the spread of its seeds, as it soon becomes a weed and shades out other favorable species.

Pinaceae

Pinus caribaea

Family

Pinaceae

General Description and Distribution

Pinus caribaea, more commonly known as caribbean pine, is a large tree that can grow to 45 m in height and 135 cm in diameter. The tree is normally straight with regular branching. It has become one of the more important commercial trees in tropical areas below 1,000 m.

Plantations have been established in Southeast Asia.

Use

The tree can be used as firewood. It has a specific gravity of 0.4-0.66, and a annual incremental yield of 21-40 m3 per ha. In addition to firewood, the wood is used for general-purpose pulpwood, particle board, and fiber board. It is also for boat building, heavy construction, and furniture components.

Environmental

Requirements

It grows best in temperatures ranging from 22-28 degrees centigrade, with a maximum temperature of 37 degrees. The species grows best below 1,000 m.

Rainfall requirements vary between 1,000 mm and 1,800 mm. Plants have been observed growing in areas with less than 660 mm.

The species usually grows on loams or sandy loams that are well drained. The pH is between 5.0 and 5.5.

Propagation and Care

Provide the correct mycorrhizee in the soil and soak seeds in water for 24 hours prior to planting in a seed bed. The tree does not compete well with tall grasses, so it is necessary to clear the immediate area for the first year.

The species is susceptible to soil-borne pathogens and fungi. Serious insect pests include beetles, pine aphids, leaf cutting ants, termites and moths.

Polygonaceae

Coccoloba uvifera

Family

Polygonaceae

General Description and Distribution

Commonly known as seagrape, Coccoloba is a roundtopped, spreading, low -branched tree that grows up to 15 m high w ith thick smooth branches and a stout 1 m trunk. The leaves are large,thick, and almost circular. The flowers develop into a grapelike edible fruit. The tree is not as large when grown along the seacoast.

Coccoloba is native to the Caribbean but is successfully propagated in South America, Hawaii, and the Philippines.

Use

The wood is used for firewood and charcoal. It is prized because it is easy to light and gives off an extremely hot, smokeless flame. It also grows quickly, is multi-stemmed, and branches profusely.

The tree is also used in furniture making, as an ornamental, and for fruit, honey, and bark.

Environmental Requirements

The tree requires a tropical to subtropical climate full sun and low altitudes. In the Philippines it grows from sea level up to 500 m. It survives rainfall variations of 500 mm to 1,400 mm. It grows on pure sand, rocky coasts, limestone and diabase, and it is tolerant of salt.

Propagation and Care

Although seeds germinate rapidly, the seagrape may not fruit for 6-8 years. Vegetative propagation is preferred for quicker growth, and to assure reproduction of female tree.

The young seedling is sensitive to shade and must be weeded on a regular basis.

Rhamnaceae

Maesopsis eminii

Family

Rhamnaceae

General Description and Distribution

Maesopsis is a fast growing tree that is free of branches for 9-20 m, and has a wide, full crown. Its recommended use is for enrichment planting in the hum id tropics.

Plantations have been established or natural forests managed in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands.

Use

Because the wood is light (specific gravity 0.38-0.48) it is not an ideal firewood. It can be used for indoor construction, plywood, and pulpwood. In some areas the tree is used to shade coffee and cacao.

It also produces fruit which is eaten by animals.

Environmental Requirements

The tree requires a mean annual temperature ranging from 22-27 degrees centigrade. It is normally found between 100 and 700 m above sea level. It has been observed in an African country at 1,200 m.

The species requires at least 1,200 mm of consistent rain. Soil should be moderately fertile, well-drained, light-to-medium-textured, with a neutral to acid p H .

Propagation and Care

In many cases natuar regeneration takes place as birds eat and distribute the seeds. The tree can be propagated by direct seeding or cuttings. If direct seeding, soak the seeds in water for 2-3 days.

During the early stages of growth, the tree cannot compete with Imperata grass. The young trees are susceptible to fungi. Fungus infestation may occur if the trees are planted on poorly drained, infertile soils.

Rhizophora, Avicennia,

Bruguiera

Mangroves

Botanic Names

Rhizophora, Avicennia, Bruguiera

General Description and Distribution

Mangroves are typically shrub like trees but can also range up 40 m tall and 1 m and more in diameter. They are normally found in saline mud flats in tropical and subtropical climates. Mangroves are unique in that they can survive waterlogging, poor soil aeration, salinity, high humidity, and strong winds. The wood is an excellent firewood, and also used by many cultures in jewelry making. Some southern Phiilppine tribes use the wood for medicinal purposes.

Mangroves are abundant around the Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, the southern United States, and Central and South America.

Use

Mangrove is primarily used for firewood. It splits easily, is heavy, and burns over a long period of time. It also makes excellent charcoal. Specific gravity is 0.7 to over 1.0. Calorific content in most species is 4,000-4,300 kcal per kg.

Mangroves are also instrumental in protecting estuarine areas against the full effects of tropical storms. Further, the blanket of vegetation offers spawning grounds for many aquatic species upon which fishermen depend. Tannins from the wood are used to produce hard leather, and the resins are used for bonding plywood.

Environmental Requirements

Mangroves only survive in tropical areas and are very sensitive to frost. Thay grow best where the average annual rainfall is over 1,000 mm.

They survive in saline, poorly drained soils, but grow best in areas with regular tidal movements. In order to control excessive salinity and thus promote healthy growth, regular flushing with seawater or freshwater should occur. Mangroves grow poorly when surrounded by levees.

Propagation and Care

Because mangroves grow rapidly there is very little experience with actual propagation. Where plantations or test plots have been planted, direct seeding has been the most successful. No seed treatment is required, and except the leather fern, weeds are not a problem because of the harsh conditions in which the tree is found.

Trema species

Family

Ulticeae

General Description and Distribution

Trema species are shrubs or small trees with spreading crowns and evergreen leaves. They can reach heights of 10 m and diameters of 20 cm. The species is normally the first species to grow following the denudation of land.

Of the four Trema species, two have been successfully cultivated in the tropical islands of the Pacific: Trema cannabina and Trema orientalist

Use

Although the calorific value of the species is only 4,500 keel per kg, the species is collected for firewood. Their best use is for the protection of denuded and disturbed areas. The species is also used as a shade tree for coffee, cacao and other crops.

Environmental Requirements

The tree has been identified growing up to 2000 m. Rainfall requirements are species specific. Trema orientalis requires a moist, humid climate. Trema politoria a dry climate, and Trema guineensis grows well in humid and dry climates. The species has no particular soil requirements.

Propagation and Care

Seeds need to be refrigerated at 2 degrees centigrade for 2- 3 months, or treated with giberellic acid in order to break dormancy.

Verbenaceae

Gmelina arborea

Family

Verbenaceae

General Description and Distribution

Gmelina is a medium to large deciduous tree which may reach heights of up to 30 m with a trunk diameter of 60 cm. It develops low wide branches, and a wide crown. It is a promising fuelwood that is easy to handle, grows quickly, and is adaptable to a wide range of soils.

The tree is native to most Southeast Asian countries and is being tested in other countries as well.

Use

The wood is primarily used for firewood in many African nations. Its caloric value is 4,800 keel per kg. Charcoal produced from the wood burns without smoke. It is reported some trees grow to 3 m in the first year and 20 m after 4.5 years. The wood can also be used as particle board, plywood core stock, sawtimber, packing, and furniture. The flowers can be used to produce a high quality honey.

Environmental Requirements

Gmelina withstands up to 52 degree centigrade. It will grow up to 1,000 m. Required rainfall ranges between 750 mm to 4,500 mm annually.

It is successfully propagated in the northern Philippines, which experiences a six month dry season.

The plant is adaptable and survives well on a wide range of soil types including acid soils, calcareous loams, and lateritic soils. It will not grow well in waterlogged soils, thin soils, leached acid soils, or hot sandy soils.

Propagation and Care

The tree can be propagated from seed from cuttings, or by budding and grafting. A spacing of 2 x 2 m is recommended for fuelwood plantations. It is possible to integrate the tree with other crops during its early stages of growth. Following establishment nothing will grow under its dense canopy.

The tree is attacked by ants and defoliating insects. Bark and machete disease are severe in humid areas. Because the leaf of the tree is palatable to livestock, wood lots should not be established near grazing areas.

Tropical Fruit

Anona muricata

Common Name

Soursop

General Description and Distribution

Soursop is a small evergreen 7.5-9 m high, with a 10-30 cm long fruit weighing as much as 4.5-7 kg. The fruit is spiny, and the flesh is acid, aromatic and juicy. Many large, black seeds are embedded in the flesh.

The fruit is grown throughout the tropics.

Use

The fruit is used to make drinks, or to flavor ice cream or cold fruit bars. The tree grows quickly and may grow to 2 m in one year, with fruit in the second year. In some cases it may take three to four years before bearing. Yields have exceeded 3,500 kg/acre in the fourth year with yields increasing to 7,000 kg in the sixth year.

Environmental Requirements

The species grows in the lowland tropics, and prefers rich, deep, well drained loams.

Propagation and Care

The tree is usually propagated by seed, chosen from healthy well developed trees. Seeds are planted in seed boxes or beds containing a mixture of sand, soil, and compost. The seeds germinate in 15-20 days. If planting in boxes, transfer the seedlings to plastic bags when 15 cm tall. Transfer the seedlings to the field when 30 cm in height at the beginning of the rainy season. Space 3.6 x 4.5 m. In small gardens this can be reduced to 2.5 x 2.5 m.

Annona squamosa

Common Name

Sweetsop, sugar apple

General Description and Distribution

Sweetsop is a woody semi-deciduous shrub or small tree reaching 4.5-6 m in height.

Use

The fruit is used mainly as a desert fruit and contains 16-18 percent sugars. A purgative tea is made from the roots and a mildly laxative and tonic tea from the leaves. The crushed leaves and seeds are insecticidal.

It may take three or four years for the trees to bear fruit.

Environmental Requirements

A. squamosa grows at low to medium elevations in the tropics. It cannot stand frost or long cold periods, but withstands drought better than many fruit trees.

Propagation and Care

The tree is usually propagated by seed in a bed or plastic bags. Germination occurs in 50-70 days. Scarification and soaking for three days hastens germination. Seedlings should be grafted after a year. When transplanting to the field, space the plants 4 x 6 m.

Artocarpus altilis

Common Name

Breadfruit

General Description and Distribution

Breadfruit is a large tree restricted to humid tropical regions. It is a food staple in many places, being rich in carbohydrates. It is a tall, straight, spreading tree, 12-18 m. Branches usually start low on the trunk. The leaves, which are concentrated at the ends of the branches, are very large, deeply lobed, leathery, and slightly hairy on the lower surface.

Use

The fruit is used solely for food. It varies in size from 10-25 cm in diameter. In the seedless variety the central core is composed of edible pulp.

Seedlings come into bearing when they are eight to ten years old, but vegetatively propagated trees start to crop within five to six years. Individual species determine taste and the number of seeds.

Environmental Requirements

A warm, humid climate is required, with temperatures of 16-38 degrees centigrade and a well distributed annual rainfall of 200-250 cm. The tree is intolerant of cold and of extreme conditions, such as those found at high elevations.

The best growth is in deep, moist soils with a high humus content and high fertility; good drainage is essential.

Propagation and Care

The use of root cuttings has proved to be the most reliable method of propagating breadfruit. With this method plants ready for field planting can be obtained in 14 months.

Take cuttings at the end of the dry season and the beginning of the rainy season when energy is stored in the roots of the plant. Cuttings should not be more than 6 cm in diameter and 25 cm long. Place the cuttings in raised beds composed of sandy loam. Place diagonally at a distance of 12 x 25 cm. Keep the soil moist and, if possible, spray the cuttings two to three times a day. The cuttings are ready for potting after six or seven months or after they have made 20-25 cm of root growth. Wait an additional six to seven months before transplanting to the field.

Artocarpus heterophyllus

Common

Name

Jackfruit

General Description and Distribution

Jackfruit is a fairly tall tree ranging from 9-23 m in height, with a straight trunk, branching near the base and forming a dense irregular crown. Large fruit are borne on short stalks on the main branches, but as the trees mature the fruits are produced from the stalks as well. Fruits are normally produced year round.

The tree is spread throughout Asia and the Pacific.

Use

The fruit is mainly produced for human and animal consumption. The fruits, which are of immense size, contain between 100 and 500 large seeds surrounded by a yellow stringy pulp. The pulp is pulled away from the seeds and eaten like candy. It also makes an excellent meal when boiled. The tree generally begins to bear after four to eight years.

The wood is also highly prized for construction and furniture making.

Environmental

Requirements

Although the Jackfruit thrives in a moist, tropical climate, it is well adapted to a wide range of conditions. It is tolerant of lower temperatures, but is injured by frost. Young trees need protection from the sun. Plenty of moisture in the soil is essential, but the tree is intolerant of poorly drained soils. The best growth occurs in deep alluvial soils of open texture.

Propagation and

Care

The most common and simplest method of raising Jackfruit trees is from seed. Other methods provern successful are etoliation, air layering, patch budding and approach grafting. Even when propagated vegetatively the rootstocks are from seed.

Plant large, heavy seeds in beds or plastic bags immediately after extraction. Germination normally takes three to four weeks. Germination time can be reduced if seeds are soaked for 24 hours prior to planting. Plant the seeds flat or with the pointed end facing downward. If planting in beds space the seeds 40 x 40 cm. Transplant to pots or bags after six months. It is generally recommended to plant the trees in bags or directly in the field because of their long tap roots. The long tap root is easily injured and bare root seedlings do not transplant well. Pot before the plant reaches the six leaf stage.

The plant is relatively free from pests and diseases.

Averrhoa carambola

Common

Name

Carambola

General Description and Distribution

Carambola is a fruit tree usually cultivated in tropical home gardens. It is an attractive small tree about 12-15 m in height and bears numerous branches. The bark is grey and smooth and the crown is open. The twigs are covered with short yellow hairs when young, but become leafy as the tree matures. The leaves are composed of three to f ive pairs of ovate leaflets, about 2-9 x 1-4 cm in size, and are pale and shiny. The fruit is about 13 cm in length, attractive in appearance, golden in color, waxy in skin texture and deeply ribbed.

The tree grows throughout the tropics.

Use

Some of the fruits are eaten raw while the less sweet are stewed or made into jams or a beverage. Another the variety, the bilimbi, is more acid and can be used in making pickles and curries. The bilimbi is also used for medicinal purposes. When mixed with pepper it induces perspiration. It is a cure for itch when applied hot, and is also known to provide relief for coughs, mumps, rheumatism, pimples, rectal inflammation, thrush, beri-beri, biliousness. Carambola has no such medicinal virtues, but is exceedingly more pleasurable to eat.

The tree comes into bearing the fourth or fifth year after planting. The fruits mature 14-15 weeks after fruit set. From anthesis to maturity takes about 101-108 days. Since flowers are produced throughout the year, fruit in all stages of development are present on the tree at the same time.

Environmental Requirements

The carambola is a tree of the tropical lowlands and coasts but w ill thrive sheltered in the hills up to 1,200 m. Mature trees can withstand mild frosts much better than young trees.

The species is also tolerant as regards soil type provided there is good drainage. The tree is suited to dry weather, it also performs in areas with well distributed rainfall.

Propagation and Care

The seeds of the earambola are small and, after cleaning and drying, should be sown in pots or boxes under light shade and kept regularly watered.

After germination the seedlings should be transplanted to nursery beds or plastic bags and hardened off. Transplant to the field at a spacing of 6 x 6 m. Expect fruits in four to five years.

Vegetative propagation will reduce fruiting time to ten months. Bud grafting is probably the most successful method of propagation.

Chrysophyllum cainito

Common Name

Star Apple

General Description and Distribution

Star apple is a smooth skinned apple shaped fruit from 5-10 cm in diameter. It is handsome ornamental evergreen tree which reaches a height of 15 m under favorable conditions. The leaves are oval, shiny dark green above and silky, coppery gold beneath. Small purplishwhite flowers are borne in clusters scattered along mature tw igs and partly concealed by the foilage.

The tree grows throughout the tropics.

Use

The fruit contains a white, sweet, edible pulp in which are embedded 10 glossy dark seeds loosely placed in cavities. It has a good flavor but is too bland for some tastes.

Trees planted from seed come into bearing after five to nine years. Yields have reported at 70 kg per tree.

Environmental Requirements

The star apple is tropical in its requirements and thrives in humid atmospheres with relatively high temperatures throughout the year.

The species grows very successfully in rich, deep soils but also does well in light, sandy soils if sufficiently fertilized. The tree responds very favorably to potash.

Propagation and Care

Most star apple trees are raised from seed. The seeds germinate readily if planted fresh. Sow in boxes or bags in light, sandy loam soil. Germination takes about six weeks. When seedlings have three to five leaves, transfer to beds. This normally takes an additional six to eight weeks.

Inarching has proven to be the best method of vegetative propagation.

Durio zibethinus

Common

Name

Durian

General Description and Distribution

A traveller once wrote that the durian is of such an excellent taste that it surpasses in flavor all other fruits of the world. Others have observed its flavor as that of a rich butter-like custard highly flavored with almonds. It is credited as having aphrodisiac properties.

The durian is a tall evergreen tree which can reach a height of 40 m or more. The trunk has a brownish-gray bark, rough and flaky, with deep longitudinal splits. It has a diameter of 120 cm or more with fairly low branches and a full, round crown.

There are reportedly 27 species of durian. Some of the 27 are only used for wood. The original home of the durian is contested. Some believe to be from Borneo, others from Malaya. It has been successfully propagated in other Asian countries, especially the Philippines,

Use

Several species of durian are specifically cultivated for their fruit. The main edible part of the fruit surrounds the seeds The seeds can also be cooked and eaten. Unripe, the fruit is often cooked like vegetable .

The durian comes into bearing at about twelve years of age. Although the tree can self-pollinate, cross-pollination has been observed as the most successful means of propagation. Because the stigma is most receptive in late afternoon and during the evening, bats are often the agents of pollination.

The fruits take about six weeks to develop. One tree may bear between 50 and 80 fruits a year. A large fruit may weigh as much as 3 kg and can grow up to 30 cm long and 15 cm in diameter. It is pale green in color and covered in hard, sharp, coarse spines. Opening a durian to get at the fruit can be difficult. Because the fruit is heavy and spiny, caution is urged when walking under the trees. Falling fruit are extremely dangerous

The wood is used in furniture making and home construction.

Environmental Requirements

The tree can survive at low as well as upper elevations. Successful growth has been reported at 760 m, with the highest yields at sea level. The tree needs a high relative humidity throughout the year and, since it becomes a very large tree when fully grown, the soil needs to be deep and fertile. Loams and alluvial soils, well drained but moisture retaining, are desirable. A tree of the forest, the durian tree grows better under shade when young.

Propagation and Care

The durian is readily raised from seed. Since the seeds have a short viability period they should be washed, dried and planted as soon as possible. If the seeds are kept more than a week poor germination results. Plant the seeds in beds, spaced 30 cm apart and not overwatered. The seeds will germinate in three days. At the four-leaf stage some three to four weeks after sowing, transplant the seedlings to a wider spacing in the bed, or transfer to plastic bags filled with a compost mixture. Transplant hardened seedlings to the field at the onset of rainy season at a spacing of about 15 x 15 m.

The most practiced method of vegetative propagation is bud grafting although cuttings hold promise in highly controlled nursery conditions.

Garcinia mangostana

Common Name

Mangosteen

General Description and Distribution

The mangosteen is considered to be one of the best tropical fruits in flavor and aroma. Its taste suggests a cross between the pineapple, apricot, and orange. The flesh of the fruit melts in the mouth like ice cream.

The mature tree is approximately 10-25 m high. It has greenish white flowers that produce a dark purple berry about 4-7 cm in diameter. The tree seldom begins to fruit until it is six to eight years old and may not bear until the 15th to 20th years if grown under sub-optimal conditions. Mangosteen is grown widely throughout tropical Asia.

Use

Over 400 species of mangosteen have been identified. Approximately 40 of the species are edible. Six are commonly grown for fruit. The fruits are used as flavoring substitutes, fish preservatives, syrups and jams, sources of acid for coagulating rubber, latex, tannins, and medicinal preparations. The food can also be canned. The seeds produce oil and butter.

Environmental Requirements

The tree is naturally distributed in the zone between 10°N and 10°S. Temperatures below 5 and above 38 degrees centigrade are lethal. Temperatures less than 20°C may retard growth. Annual rainfall should be above 1,270 mm. The ideal temperature range is between 25 and 35 degrees centigrade with a relative humidity of over 80 percent. It has been grown up to 1,067 m.

Propagation and Care

Mist propagation has proven to be the most effective means of hastening fruit bearing in mangosteen trees. If mist propagation is out of the question, it is possible to grow mangosteen from seeds. Choose seeds from the second crop produced by the parent tree. The seeds should be large and disease and damage free. If necessary, store the pulp-free seeds in peat moss and tightly sealed containers for no longer than four to five weeks. A higher rate of germination will be attained if the seeds are sown within five days of removal from the fruit. Average duration for germination can range from 10 to 54 days.

Plant the seeds in containers or directly in a seedbed. Seedlings are transplanted when they have developed four leaves. Since the root system of the mangosteen is fragile, slow-growing and easily disturbed, great care is required when transplanting. The tree is relatively free of diseases and pests. Protect the tree from high winds during the first two years of growth.

Trees are planted at a distance of approximately 10 x 10 m. Compost and/or well rotted manure should be added at 80-100 kg per hole. Add a 2.5 cm of mulch around the base of the plant at the end of the rainy season in order to help retain soil moisture and supply nitrogen.

Lansium domesticum

Common Name

Langsat, lanzon, lanzone, lansone

General Description and Distribution

The langsat is a medium sized tree, about 15-20 m in height. The tree bears both seeded and seedless fruit that are round or oval, 2.5 cm i diameter and 4 cm long, with a dull straw or brownish-yellow leathery rind which exudes a white latex when broken. The inside ia a white translucent flesh which separates into five distinct segments, It is very juicy and not extremely sweet which is characteristic of many tropical fruits.

Langsat is commonly found along roadsides and in gardens throughout Southeast Asia.

Use

Only the fruit of the tree is commonly harvested.

Environmental Requirements

The tree is usually planted below 600 m. Exposed sites should be avoided as strong winds can cause damage, especially when the trees have flowers and fruit. The tree does not require large amounts of nutrients or water, although it prefers a good loamy well drained soil.

Propagation and Care

Seed propagation is the usual method of reproduction. Wash the seeds with water to remove any flesh which could ferment or mold, Air dry the seeds and plant as soon as possible after removal from the fruit, Plant the seeds in pots or bags or in a seedbed, If planting in a seedbed, space the seeds close together and 1 cm deep, Germination normally takes one to three weeks. When the seedlings are 15 cm tall and have at least two pairs of leaves they are thinned to 40-50 cm apart. Transplant to the field when the seedlings are 1,5 to 2,5 years old. Growth is slow and and seedlings do not come into bearing until 12 to 20 years from time of planting, Vegetative methods or propagation include budding or grafting, layering or marcotting, or cuttings,

Transplant in the field at a distance of 7 x 7 m Do not plant deeper in the field than in the nursery. Ring weed around the base of the plants Plant avocado and breadfruit around the perimeter of the langsat to provide shade, food, and added income.

A root disease has been observed on young and old trees The disease is characterized in the field on aerial parts by leaf yellowing and wilting, followed by defoliation Below ground, the roots rot, become brownish black in parts or may decay completely. A wet, white fungal mycelium is found penetrating the wood and in the tissues of the decaying roots.

Malpighia glabra

Common Name

Barbados cherry

General Description and Distribution

The barbados cherry is a low-branching, spreading shrub rather than a tree, which under favorable conditions reaches a height of three to five meters. It has become popular since 1945 because of the high Vitamin C content of the fruit which is 20 times the amount found in orange juice The recommended daily requirement of Vitamin C can be met by eating three of the fruits.

Although the fruit is native to South America and southern Texas, it is also propagated in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands

Use

Only the fruit of the shrub is harvested

Environmental Requirements

The cherry will tolerate a wide range of climatic conditions, so long as it is not subject to long periods of cool weather The shrub is relatively drought resistant, but requires adequate moisture during periods of fruit development An annual rainfall of 1,780 mm has proven adequate for healthy growth

Shrubs have been grown successfully on various soils ranging from acid sands to heavy clays, provided they are not subject to waterlogging for more than a fewe days. The shrub is sensitive to deficiences of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and trace elements.

Propagation and Care

Barbados cherries can be easily raised from seed, but it is important to get specially selected seeds in order to protect against undesirable characteristics.

Clean the seeds of flesh, dry and sow in beds at a distance of 30 x 30 cm between rows and 5 cm within rows. Cover the seed to depth of 6 mm. Shade the seeds and water regularly. When the seedlings are 7.5 cm tall transplant to containers or replant 30 cm apart within the row and 60 cm between the rows. Transplant to their permanent sites between six and twelve months old at the beginning of the rainy season.

Cuttings have proven to be the best method of vegetative propagation. The cuttings should be exposed to a high moisture regime such as that provided by continous or intermittent mist.

Mangifera indica

Common Name

Mango

General Description and Distribution

The mango is one of the most important fruit crops of the tropics and the subtropics. It is known that Alexander the Great had mango orchards in the Indus Valley as early as 327 B.C. It has been in cultivation in India for well over 4,000 years. Because of the wide variety of species in Southeast Asia it has been speculated the mango originated in that part of the world.

The mango is an evergreen; it is one of the largest fruit trees and, when planted singly, normally has a spreading form. The tree frequently grows to height of 21 meters. In areas with no frost and low wind velocities, several hundred year old trees have recorded. The leaves are of leathery texture and vary in length from 2.5 to 10 cm. The flower has five small, green, hairy sepals and five small spreading petals. The fruit is a large drupe. The size of the fruit depends on the variety. Some are as small as plum; others may weigh as much as four to seven pounds. The shape varies from ovate, ovate oblong, round, oval to oblong. The skin is smooth, somewhat thicker than that of a peach, commonly yellow or greenish yellow in color. Some varieties assume a deep scarlet color. In tropical countries the mango seldom ceases growth and it is possible to propagate it vegetatively the year round.

The mango is grown extensively throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

Use

The tree is primarily used for fruit production. The fruit can be eaten ripe, unripe, made into a variety of dishes, and processed into a juice concentrate.

Environmental Requirements

The mango thrives under a variety of climatic conditions but its profitable cultivation is limited by temperature and precipitation. It can endure a minimum temperature as low as 0 degrees centigrade and as high as 46-48 degrees centigrade. It is reported its growth is minimal at 4-10 degrees centigrade, and maximal around 42-43 degrees centigrade.

The mango grows in areas with scanty rainfall and also in very wet regions The total amount of rainfall during a year seems to be of less significance than the season in which it falls. Eight-hundred and ninety to one-thousand and sixteen milimeters of well distributed rainfall is sufficient for the successful cultivation of mango. Excessive amounts of rainfall during flowering may inhibit pollination.

Mango trees in the tropics grow from sea level up to 1,220 m. Most large scale operations are located below 610 m. Altitude has a pronounced effect on the time of flowering. For every 120 m increase in height from sea level, the time of flowering is retarded by four days.

Mango trees flourish on a wide range of soils. However, they prefer a deep rich fertile soil because of the long tap root. Excessively sandy soils weaken the tree and lower the quality, sized and quantity of fruit produced. The soil should be well drained and without a hardpan. A mango tree can withstand periodic flooding, but orchards on poorly drained soils are generally unthrifty and less productive. Soils with fluctuating water tables are adverse for good root growth. For the development of a strong root system, the water table should not be higher than 2.5m from the surface. On deep, fertile and well drained soils, rootstock seedlings grow faster and become available for grafting operations much sooner.

Propagation and Care

The mango can propagated with ease by seed or with several vegetative methods of propagation. When developing projects it is recommended to propagate by vegetative means, as this will ensure uniformity in plant height and fruit characteristics. An enterprising project may involve growing seedlings to be sold as rootstock. This helps to eliminate variations in the performance of grafted plants in the orchards caused by genetic differences in the rootstocks.

Seeds should be obtained from fully ripe fruit. They gatherer should harvest seeds from one source in order to ensure uniformity. If conditions prohibit fruit collection from one source, collect from different sources including discarded fruits at markets. The size and the weight of the seed influence the percentage (%) germination. Only large, fully developed and plump seeds should be used. Light, diseased and malformed seed should be discarded.

Mango seeds lose their viability in a short time. It i always better to collect them from a nearby source and sow them within one week of extradition. The maximum period for which a mango seed will remain viable is said to be 100 days. It is necessary to store seeds place in charcoal powder. The viability of a seed can be tested by putting them in a pail of water. Seeds which sink to the bottom have a higher germination percentage than those which float.

Seeds can be sown in different types and sizes of pots, plastic bags, or nursery beds. The containers or beds should have a fine mixture of sand, compost, and soil. Containers are generally 30 cm deep with drainage holes. Beds are usually 9 x 1.5 m, and about 15 cm in height. If possible, prevent the long taproot from penetrating the subsoil by placing a layer of concrete or plastic under the bed. Rows should be 30 cm apart. Distance between seeds is 15 cm. Place the seeds in the soil no deeper than five cm with the convex side up. Protect the containers and beds against the sun, wind, and rain. Water the beds regularly.

It is possible to propagate the seedlings by grafting, budding, cutting, and layering.

Nephelium Lappaceum

Common Name

Rambutan

General Description and Distribution

Rambutan is considered one of the most delectable fruits of the Tropics. The fruits hang in loose clusters of about a dozen. They are oval in shape, 3-5 cm long and 2.5-3cm wide. They have a highly distinctive appearance, due to the yellowish-red, soft spiny outgrowths which cover the pericarp. The main edible part of the fruit is the aril which is white and juicy, with a subtle sweet to acid flavor. The aril encloses a nut like kernel which can also be eaten when cooked. The fruit is claimed to have moderately high Vitamin C content and the seed has a high oil content.

The tree is medium-sized, seldom attaining a height of more than 12 to 15 m, and a spread of about 6 m. The leaves are compound with five to seven short leaflets about 10 cm long.

Rambutan is mainly found in Malaysia and Java It is also grown in many parts of the Philippines.

Use

Only the fruit of the tree is harvested and is sold fresh. Like the litchi, rambutan can also be canned

Environmental Requirements

Rambutan is known to thrive up to an altitude of 300m. It thrives in moist, hot climates with well distributed rainfall. It is tolerant of a variety of soil types, but a deep, well-drained loam is preferred.

Propagation and Care

Rambutan can be raised from seed, although it is not the preferred method. Trees raised from seed bear fruit after about six years, but vegetatively propagated plants may bear after two years.

When direct seeding it is essential that the seed is not more than two days old from the time it was removed from the fruit. Transplant the seedlings at about six months. Treat the seeding carefully as the roots are very sensitive.

If propagating by vegetative means raise rootstocks in beds or in plastic bags. When six to eight months old the seedlings are ready for budding or graffting. The total time from budding to the production of a plant large enough for planting out is about four to five months. Grafted plants are ready for cutting after approximately 40-60 days.

Marcotting is also a popular method of propagation. Select a branch that is 12-18 months old. Roots should appear after 6-12 weeks and after enough have been produced, cut the marcotts from the tree and place in pots in the shade. Water carefully until well established.

The main pests of rambutan are flying foxes and fruit bats. This is especially true at night when these frugivorous animals prey. It is necessary to cover the fruit or stand guard.

High winds can shed fruits prematurly as well as damage limbs. If mango is grown on a large scale in high wind area, it is beneficial to plant shelterbelts.

Mango trees in the tropics grow from sea level up to 1,220 m. Most large scale operations are located below 610 m. Altitude has a pronounced effect on the time of flowering. For every 120 m increase in height from sea level, the time of flowering is retarded by four days.

Appendix D

Composting

Composting is a process which speeds up the breakdown of organic refuse in the soil, releasing nutrients for use by plants. Composting is necessary to improve poor soil in nurseries, gardens and planting sites.

The best composting method is the 30 day hot comporting method. This system uses high temperatures (up to 170 degrees F) and frequent turnings to achieve a fast usable compost in one month. Advantages to this method include:

1. High temperatures kill weed seeds, disease and insect eggs;

2 Quickness of process provides plenty of compost

The following conditions must be met for suitable comporting:

Carbon: Nitrogen (C: N) Ratio: The amount of carbon (C) materials, from dried plant material in ratio to the amount of nitrogen (N), from green, fresh plant materials

The C: N ratio should be 1:12 (1 part C to 12 parts N)

Sources of Carbon (brown dried plant material):

Dried leaves, straw, grass, weeds

Saw dust

Wood shavings

Sources of Nitrogen (green plant materials):

Fresh grass and weed clippings

Fresh leaves from trees

Animal manure

Coffee grounds and kitchen refuse

The C: N ratio is important to maintain. Too much nitrogen will mean nitrogen lost to the air in the form of ammonia. Too much carbon will prevent the pile from reaching high temperatures, slowing down the process.

Other considerations for the pile include air and water. The microbes breaking down the material must have both to carry out decomposition. Avoid mounding the pile higher than 1.5 m, or air will not penetrate the entire pile. Provide enough water for the pile to be moist, but not so much that water oozes from the comporting material if tightly squeezed. Excess water will kill the microbes by drowning; too little drys them out.

To begin, construct a frame of discarded wood or other materials 6 to 9 meters square. The frame should be low enough so the manager can easily turn the pile. Start the compost by piling a 13 cm layer of leaves, grass or discarded brush in the bottom of the frame. This provides drainage of excess water. Follow with 5 cm of grass clippings to promote the flow of air through the pile. Too much weight tends to pack the material and impede the flow of air thus, slowing the decomposition of the material. Now add topsoil and organic manure to introduce soil microbes. Microbial action is necessary to break the material into a usable form. In each layer mix in a little dried materials for carbon. Add kitchen scraps and water lightly if needed. Repeat the above steps until the pile is 1-1.5 m high. Cover the pile with black plastic or other heat-absorbing material.

Do not be afraid to add a host of other organic material to the pile. The pulp hulled from coffee beans is an excellent additive. Most mills have no further use for it and simply discard it. Rice and corn hulls are another additive. Scout the area and locate discarded organics that can be easily turned into a usable compost. One word of caution. Because the compost will form the base of the planting medium, do not include material that is diseased. Although the temperature of the pile should be high enough to kill pathogens, it is better to err on the safe side by excluding suspect material.

Obtain a soil temperature thermometer and monitor the piles' temperature. If a thermometer is unavailable check the temperature with your hand. A good pile will follow the following schedule:

Day 1: 110 degrees F 3: 125 " ''

If the pile doesn't heat up to 125 degrees F by the third day, break it up and start over.

After day 4 or 5 the temperature will start to drop. When this happens it is time to turn the pile over. Continue to turn the pile every four or five days. In order to maintain high temperatures, it is essential to keep the material moist at all times. Add water as needed. After about 30 days the material will have broken down into a usable compost.

Turning the pile involves mixing the material. For the first turning, use a pitchfork or shovel. Replace the outer material with the material on the bottom of the pile. This exposes the less decomposed material to higher temperatures. Break up any large chunks before turning them.

Another method uses three separate comporting bins aligned in a row. Fill the bin farthest to the left with the material to be composted. When that material is ready to be turned, move it into the adjacent bin. Fill the first bin with fresh material. When the material is ready to be turned a second time, turn it into the last bin. Simultaneously turn the material from the first bin into the second bin, and place fresh material in the first bin. Continue to repeat the process. This method provides a continuous supply of compost for the nursery or planting area.

Compost is invaluable in the operation of a nursery, and is quite useful at the planting site. Consider teaching local farmers to make their own compost and assist them in their development.

APPENDIX E

Locating and Marking Contours

Appendix E

Locating and Marking Contours

An easy method of marking out the contours is to use an A-frame and

plumb-bob device (See Illus. 6-1). To build the device the following items are needed:

o two poles of equal length, 1.5-2m long

o one pole lm long

o nails, screws, or string to attach poles

o a piece of rock or heavy metal, globular in shape, about 5cm in diameter for a plumb bob

o a 2 m piece of string to hold the plumb bob.

To build and prepare the A- Frame:

1. Lay all three pieces of wood on the ground and attach them together to form an ''A" as in Illus. 6-1.

2. Attach the plumb bob securely to one end of the string. Attach the other end of the string to the top of the A-frame. Make sure that the string is tied long enough so that the plumb bob hangs below the cross piece, and short enough so that it will swing freely when the A-frame is standing.

3. Stand the frame up on level ground. Mark where each foot is placed.

4. Let the plumb bob swing and come to rest. Mark the crosspiece where the plumb bob string crosses it.

5. Reverse the position of the legs. Let the plumb bob come to rest and mark where the string touches or crosses the crosspiece.

6. Make a mark exactly between the two marks on the crosspiece. This will be the mark used to determine if the A-frame is level.

To use the A-frame to mark contours, the A-frame is "walked" along the side of the hill in the following manner:

1. Start at the top of the hill and mark the first line with a stake. Place one foot of the A-frame at the stake.

2. Slowly rotate the other foot up and down the slope until the plumb bob comes to rest with its string crossing the crosspiece at the middle mark. This takes patience, a bit of trial and error, and waiting for the plumb bob to come to rest. Exactness is not critical.

3. When the string comes to rest crossing the middle mark, the two feet of the A-frame are considered level, or on the countour. Mark the position of the second foot with a stake.

4. Walk the first foot horizontally across the slope by rotating it on the second foot. Repeat the leveling procedure (2 and 3) by rotating the first foot, and mark the level spot with a stake. Continue this procedure across the side of the hill until the edge of the planting area.

If a long carpenter's level is available, it can be placed on the crosspiece of the Aframe and used to find the level spot. This will be easier and faster to use than a plumb bob.

After a while a line of stakes will proceed across the hill at the same level, marking the contour (See Illus. 6-2). Move up or down the slope to finish marking the contours of the entire hill.

APPENDIX F

Health and Safety

Appendix F

Health and Safety

A community forester will be exposed to various hazards while working in the field. Caution must be exercised to try to avoid them, but the forester must also be prepared to act in case of accident or emergency. This chapter covers some of the more common dangers associated with forestry work: fire, risks associated with activities such as thinning and harvesting, heat and sun exposure, travel, poisonous plants and animals, coral rock, and pesticides.

Fire

Firefighting and control was discussed extensively in Chapter 7. The major fire-related dangers are burns, being surrounded by fire, becoming confused in a fire, and smoke inhalation.

Burns

Burn treatment is a topic best left to a first-aid manual. (See "Where There Is No Doctor," available from ICE.) To avoid burns, keep a safe distance from large and/or fast-burning fires. When fighting fires, always wear protective clothing such as thick gloves, heavy clothes and boots, a hat, goggles, and a face mask. Always carry water to douse sparks on clothing, skin, and hair, and to provide initial relief from third-degree burns.

Becoming Happed by Fire

Being surrounded by a large fire can lead to serious burns or death. Always be aware of the position of the edge of the f ire, the f ire's general shape and direction, and any changes in wind direction and speed. Keep other firefighters informed of whatever information is available on the fire's condition.

Confusion in a Pire

Firefighters who are separated from crews because of thick smoke, exhaustion, or darkness may quickly become confused, and can find themselves in dangerous situations. Make sure each firefighter is a part of a group of four or more and that the groups stay together at all times. Train fire fighters to pay attention to their position at all times, and to be wary of being surrounded by smoke or exhausting themselves.

Smoke Inhalation

Smoke inhalation can cause death through suffocation and internal burning. If surrounded by smoke, wet a handkerchief or cloth and place it over mouth and nose to cool and moisten incoming air as much as possible. Get out of the smoke cloud as quickly as possible. Take all necessary precautions to avoid becoming exposed to smoke. (For additional information on fire safety see "Fireman's Handbook," United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Fire Protection and Staff Unit, 370 Reed Road, Broomall, Pennsylvania 19008 USA.)

Equipment and Tools -- Safety Considerations

The major risks associated with forestry activities include injuries from tools and heavy equipment and those that occur during felling activities.

Tools

Tools must be kept sharp to function properly. Sharp tools can be a hazard, however, if used improperly. Learn and practice proper techniques for tool use before taking tools into the field. Train all workers in proper procedures, Exercise caution when carrying sharp tools on hilly or rugged land; falling on a sharp instrument may result in impalement. Draft animals can also be dangerous in field conditions. Ask a villager to teach you how to properly handle and care for the typical work animal. Begin slowly and work up to more difficult conditions. If using a draft animal on a steep slope, stay upslope of the animal.

Heavy Equipment

Stay clear of heavy equipment when it is operating. Make sure only trained, qualified operators operate equipment. Heavy equipment has tremendous leverage and power and can inflict crippling injuries on workers.

Felling Activities

All workers not involved in felling activities should stay clear of operations. When felling a tree, always be aware of the direction of the fall and the escape routes from under the tree. Do not work in a crowded, enclosed position from which rapid escape is difficult. When sizing up a tree to determine the desired direction of fall, also consider which direction the tree might fall if something goes wrong, and plan accordingly,

Dangers from Sun and Heat

The sun is more intense in tropical than in temperate zones. People working outdoors for long periods of time should protect themselves from overexposure to the sun. The hazards from overexposure include sunburn and the risk of skin cancer, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke.

Sunburn and Skin Cancer

Sunburn is caused by excessive exposure of the skin to the ultraviolet rays of the sun. Lightskinned and fair-colored people are more sensitive to the sun's rays and should take extra precautions to avoid burning. Frequent overexposure to the sun has been shown to speed the aging of skin and can lead to skin cancer and other complications. To prevent sunburn and reduce the risk of skin cancer, avoid or minimize exposure to the sun between the hours of 10:00 am and 2:00 pm, when the sun is the most intense. Use a sunscreen containing PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) whenever you will be exposed to the sun. Fair people should consider complete sunblocks such as zinc oxide on sensitive areas A shade hat will also reduce sun exposure on the face. Longsleeved cotton shirts and trousers or long skirts should be worn to protect other parts of the body.

Heat Cramps

Heat cramps occur when the salt levels in the body are lowered due to sweating. Heat cramps are an indication of approaching heat exhaustion. To prevent heat cramps, avoid working on hot, humid days when possible. Drink adequate amounts of water and maintain salt levels in the body by eating some salty foods.

Heat Exhaustion

Heat exhaustion is a response to heat characterized by fatigue, weakness, and eventual collapse. It is caused by inadequate intake of water to compensate for loss of fluids through sweating. Treatment includes administering sips of salt water, releasing or removing clothing, raising the feet, and cooling the body with wet cloths and fanning. After an attack of heat exhaustion, the victim should avoid exposure to hot temperatures for several days.

Heat Stroke

Heat stroke is a response to heat characterized by extremely high body temperature and disturbance of the sweating mechanism (ARC). Heat stroke is an immediate, lifethreatening problem. Symptoms are as follows:

o Body temperature is 106 degrees F or higher;

o Skin is hot, red, and dry (sweating mechanism has failed);

o Pulse is rapid and strong; and

o Victim may be unconscious.

Treatment involves cooling the body immediately, rubbing the whole body with cool wet towels or sponges soaked with alcohol, and administering ice packs or a cold bath (without ice). Avoid cooling the victim too much. Fans and air conditioners can be used to reduce temperature, if available. Monitor temperature after cooling. If the victim's temperature rises again, restart cooling procedures immediately.

Travel

All forms of travel have associated risks. Since workers involved in community forestry who work on islands may be required to travel by boat or motorcycle, it is worthwhile to know hazards associated with these forms of travel and the precautions that can be taken to avoid injuries.

Boats

Take care to load any small, open boat so that it is well balanced. Do not overload the boat with supplies or people. Be aware of currents, tides, and other strong water movements that will affect the navigation of the boat. Consult navigation charts for location and depth of reefs and other underwater obstructions, and give them as much clearance as possible. Keep an eye on the weather at all times to prevent being caught in a storm. Avoid going out into open water during a storm, where waves w ill be much higher than in protected areas. If caught, cover all hatches and as much of the boat as possible to prevent swamping. If the boat turns over or is swamped, stay with it as long as possible.

Motorcycles

When riding motorcycles, a helmet is a must. Peace Corps Volunteers found riding motorcycles without helmets are sent home. ~ visor or goggles will keep bugs, dirt, and dust out of the eyes and allow clear vision. Other necessary apparel includes shoes or boots and sturdy clothing. Be aware of road hazards such as potholes, drainage trenches, slippery areas, and bridges, rocks, and other traffic. Carry tools in case of breakdown and know basic repair procedures.

Dangerous Plants and Animals

The flora and fauna of islands can also present dangers to the unwary and ignorant. Never eat any plants that cannot be adequately identified. Local people are probably aware of hazardous and poisonous plants and should be consulted. If a reaction from eating a plant occurs, seek medical attention immediately.

Poisonous snakes are rare, but they may be encountered in the field. Stay as far away from any poisonous snakes as possible. Learn to identify local snakes and their habitats, and be on the lookout for them when in the field. If a poisonous snake species is abundant in an area, consider having antidote (if available) on hand for any mishaps. Obtain a list of hospitals in the area that have antidote. Learn from qualified medical personnel how to administer it.

Other dangerous wild animals, such as boars, should be avoided as much as possible. Most are wary of human presence and w ill try to escape to avoid detection. Many wild animals are dangerous only if cornered or startled.

Also be aware of animal traps set by villagers. If living in the jungle, be cautious when walking on wild animal trails. Most traps are set on these trails. Among other devices, traps include nasty mechanisms that explode when stepped on or bitten.

Coral Rock

On many Pacific islands, the major rock form is coral limestone deposits. These rocks are very sharp, as the fossil coral and shells are exposed on the outside of the rock. Be careful when handling or walking among these rocks, as they can inflict serious cuts that can become infected. If cut, treat the wound immediately.

Pesticide Safety

Pests that affect nursery and agroforestry sites can be classified into five main groups: insects, snails and slugs, pest animals, plant diseases (fungus, bacteria, etc.), and weeds.

Using a pesticide is only one of a number of ways to control pests. It should be considered only when the pest is causing more damage than the project managers can accept. If application of chemicals is necessary for control of insects, diseases, and other pests, care should be taken and procedures followed to avoid personal harm and damage to plants and/or soils.

The improper application of chemicals can result in serious bodily harm as well as environmental damage. All pesticides are toxic to some degree. Some pesticides are nearly as toxic if absorbed through the skin as if ingested. They are categorized by their LD50 rating, which refers to the 'lethal dose," or amount of pesticide needed to kill 50% of laboratory test animals. The rating is expressed in terms of milligrams of pesticide per kilogram of body weight. For example, if the LD50 of a poison is 150, then 150 mg of the poison should kill one of every two rodents that weigh one kg each. The values are useful as measures of the relative toxicities of pesticides to humans.

The LD50 rating gives no indication of the cumulative effect of repeated or long-term exposure, however, some pesticides, particularly those which affect the central nervous system (including the organophosphate Parathion), may have cumulative effects

Pesticides and the Environment

Persistence and Accumulation, Different pesticides react differently in the environment. Some break down quickly; that is, they are effective for only a short time before they are chemically transformed into harmless products. Others break down more slowly and may stay in a potent form for a long time. These are called persistent pesticides.

Pesticides become problematic when they affect sites or systems other than their intended targets. This happens when they do any of the following:

o Drift out of the target area in the form of dust or mist, carried by wind or with eroding soil;

o Leach through the soil into the groundwater;

o Are carried out as crop or animal residues; or

o Are improperly applied.

Safety Guidelines

The proper use of safety equipment and protective clothing is essential. Persons using pesticides should be thoroughly protected from exposure to skin or open wounds, inhalation of fumes, and ingestion of pesticides in any form. A properly labelled pesticide container should indicate the kind of protective measures the user should take.

Protective Clothing. In general, any person using pesticide should wear clothing that completely covers the body: a long-sleeved shirt, long trousers or a coverall garment, gloves, hat, boots, and a face shield or goggles. Clothing should be made of closely woven fabric so that toxic materials cannot penetrate through to your skin. When handling pesticide concentrates or very toxic materials, wear a liquid-proof overcoat or apron. Trousers should be worn outside of boots to keep pesticides from seeping in.

Gloves should be long enough to protect your wrists and should be worn inside the sleeves to keep seepage out. They should be made of nonpermeable material such as plastic or neoprene.

Clothing should be cared for properly. If clothing gets wet with spray, change it as soon as possible. If clothing becomes saturated with pesticide concentrate or highly toxic chemicals, destroy it. Never wash or store pesticide-contaminated clothing with other clothing. Wash hats, gloves, and boots daily, and check often to make sure they have no leaks or cracks through which pesticide may enter.

Wear respiratory mask when there is danger of inhaling toxic dust or fumes.

Preparation of Pesticides. Pesticide solutions should be prepared in a well-lit place with plenty of ventilation. If possible, it is best to prepare them outdoors. Keep animals and other people away from the area. Wear protective clothing and follow the specified directions carefully Avoid splashing when mixing the solution. If a spill does occur, soak it up with sawdust, shavings, or soil, and bury the contaminated material in a hole in an isolated place far from ground or surface water supplies.

Regulations. Make sure to follow specific laws, regulations, and guidelines for the use of particular pesticides.

Application of Pesticides

Never spray or dust pesticides on windy days or into a breeze. Do not spray with people or animals nearby. Avoid application if bees or other pollinators are active on the site. Be aware that pesticide application in a home garden may affect neighbors' grazing chickens.

Timing of Application

Do not permit unprotected people or animals to enter a site at which pesticides have been applied until sprays have dried or dust has settled. The safe waiting period for most pesticides is 24-48 hours. The following list gives a general guideline for waiting periods for common pesticides. These periods may change considerably as temperature, humidity, and amount of sunlight vary Check for local specifications if possible.

Transportation. Take precautions to avoid accidental spillage of pesticides. Containers should be properly sealed and fastened and kept away from food, animal feed, and people.

Storage and Disposal

Store pesticides in a well-ventilated, dry place away from children, food, and animals. Store in secure, clearly labeled containers that are tightly sealed to prevent leakage or release of vapors. If possible, bury empty bag and containers in a sanitary landfill, adding lime to accelerate breakdown.

Place excess pesticides in a hole in an isolated place where they will not contaminate water supplies. Look for an area with thick clay deposits, as this will slow the movement of the pesticides. Add lime to accelerate breakdown, and cover the hole with clay.

Break or crush glass and metal containers before burying. Do not puncture or crush aerosol cans, as they are known to explode. Never use pesticide containers for food or water storage. If someone insists on using them for other purposes, soak and wash containers in a strong detergent, followed by another soaking and washing, followed by rinsing in clean water. The addition of charcoal in the last rinse water and soaking overnight aids to remove traces of chemical.

Do not contaminate water supplies or streams with pesticides during application or when washing equipment. Water left from rinsing or washing should be poured into a hole and buried using the precautions cited above.

Overexposure to Pesticides. Avoid repeated or prolonged contact of any pesticide with the skin, or inhalation of dust or sprays. Clothing should be changed and hands and face carefully washed before eating, smoking, or going to the bathroom and after each application. If any part of your body is exposed or contaminated, wash immediately with detergent and clean water.

First Aid Procedures. Prevention and education are the best defenses against accidents and injuries. Become familiar with the signs and symptoms of pesticide poisoning and the appropriate first-aid procedures. Keep antidotes within easy reach in case of emergency. Instruct all workers in safety and first aid procedures, (For additional information on treating poisons, see "Where There Is No Doctor," available from ICE.)

Symptoms of Pesticide Poisoning

The detectable symptoms of pesticide poisoning vary depending on the chemical type of the pesticide and the kind of exposure. Repeated exposure to small amounts of some pesticides can cause a sudden, severe reaction. The onset of symptoms from other types may not occur until several hours after exposure, and the same types of symptoms may result from other illnesses. But if a person has been exposed to pesticides, proper first-aid procedures should not be delayed.

Identifying the Pesticide

Not all pesticides are properly labeled. They are offered for sale under many different names. Be aware that many pesticides banned in Western countries are sold in developing countries. There are only about 150 active chemical ingredients in widespread use. These have trade and generic names, and their names may differ in different areas. If a label is available, it should provide information on the chemical composition of the active ingredient. The chemical group to which a pesticide belongs can be determined from the common chemical name used. The label should also state the formulation of the product, toxicity information, and a specific antidote, if any is available,

In case of accident or injury with a pesticide, try to locate and save the label or container and check to see if an antidote or first-aid measures are listed.

Steps in Treatment

The objectives of treatment are as follows:

o Administer the correct antidote, if available;

o Remove poison from the body or from exposed body parts;

o Prevent further absorption and damage; and

o Treat specific symptoms as necessary.

If the type of pesticide absorbed is known and the antidote available, it should be administered as soon as possible. If the antidote is unknown or unavailable, treat the symptoms immediately. Trained medical assistance should be summoned, or the victim should be taken to a medical facility if possible.

Life-threatening symptoms take first priority. These include the following:

o Stopped breathing and swollen chest

o Heart failure

o Central nervous system damage.

Vomiting should not be induced if the victim is obviously mentally confused, if the chemical is caustic (because it can do more harm on the way out), or if the victim is more than six months pregnant Never induce vomiting if the person is unconscious or having convulsions.

To induce vomiting, use one tablespoon of salt dissolved into half a cup of warm water, or use syrup of ipecac. Put the patient in a face-down or kneeling position to prevent choking.

Skin Exposure

Pesticides can be absorbed by the skin if they are spilled or if they seep through clothing. If skin is exposed, it should be washed immediately with large quantities of soap and water. If exposure occurs over a long period of time, a rash may develop due to the pesticide itself or its carrier, which is usually kerosene or petroleum distillates. Rashes related to exposure usually improve when exposure is stopped. Affected areas should be carefully washed, and the person removed from further contact with the substance.

Inhalation

If pesticide dust, fumes or smoke have been inhaled, get the person to fresh air and a space to lie down. Keep the person warm and quiet; check to make sure breathing continues. If breathing stops, apply artificial respiration.

Check for breathing by placing the person face up on a flat surface. Look, listen and feel for signs of breathing. If breathing has ceased execute the following maneuvers:

1 Maintain an open airway by supporting the victim's shoulders and letting the head drop back slightly.

2. Remove any debris or foreign matter from the victim's mouth with your fingers wrapped in a clean cloth.

3. For adults: Pinch the victim's nostrils shut and place your mouth tightly over the victim's so that a seal is formed. A cloth should be placed between yours and the victim's mouth so that you do not come in direct contact with the toxic substance.

For children: Place your mouth over victim's mouth and nose.

4. Take a breath and exhale into the victim's mouth until you see the chest rise. Smaller breaths will be adequate for children or smaller victims.

5. Remove your mouth, and listen for the air to come out.

6. Repeat this procedure every five seconds for adults or three seconds for children. Continue until automatic breathing resumes or a trained medical person pronounces the victim dead.

Caution: Air and gas build-up in the stomach may occur, causing bulging. If so, place the victim's head to one side and press gently on the stomach to force the air to escape. This may cause vomiting. Make sure the airway is not obstructed by foreign matter. If vomiting does occur, turn the victim to the side and wipe out the mouth before repositioning.

Eye Exposure

Eye injuries can result from spilling pesticides, dusting or spraying, or rubbing with contaminated hands. Treatment consists of flushing the eyes from the inside (near the nose) to the outside with large amounts of water or salt solution for several minutes. An eye shield or patch should then be applied if possible, and the person should seek trained medical help.

First Aid

The community forester should be trained in basic first-aid techniques and should make sure that emergency materials are available on site. (For additional information, see "Where There Is No Doctor," available from ICE.)

First Aid Supplies

Activated charcoal - to deactivate or bind poisonous substances

Epsom salts - laxative

U.S. Government Printing Office 1996— 514-771