If sealed. Insulated shutters were fitted to a window then the reduced U-value can be easily calculated. However, the effect of less substantial elements Is more difficult assess. For that reason some basic values are given. First, it is assumed that one of two conditions prevail; either the space between the curtains or blinds and the glass is closed off at the perimeter as described above or it is open for free circulation to the room. The difference is quite marked. When the edges of the curtains are closed and the material is suitably lined so as to restrict air circulation, the "trapped" pocket of air is quite effective as insulation. These values, known as U-value modifiers (M) are as follows:

To determine the modified U-value for thermal evaluation calculations over at least a 24hour cycle the following equation can be used.

Um= U/24 x ((M x Hd) + 24 - Hd)

where

Um = overall modified U-value

M = modifier from above table

Hd = hours per day curtains are covering windows (i.e., 1800 hrs to 0700 hrs = 13 hours)

2. Thermal insulation materials and their application

Thermal insulation materials generally available for building purposes can be classified into two generic groups - bulk materials and reflective foil laminates (RFL). The first of these relies on the resistance of air trapped in pockets between the fibres of the blanket type materials (mineral fibre materials) or the cells formed in the foamed structure of board or slab type materials (usually made from plastics such as polystyrene and polyurethane foams). The second reflects radiant energy away from the object or surface being protected. The basic principles of heat transfer by radiation and conduction have been covered earlier, along with the principles of operation of such materials.

Thermal insulation in the outer fabric of a building is a vital component of an energy-efficient design strategy. The key to successful energy-efficient design is the control of heat flow through the external fabric. All the solar energy gained could be easily lost from an inadequately insulated building before it is able to be of benefit.

(a) Roof insulation

The major heat path in both cold and hot weather is through the roof. Generally the roof is the largest single exposed surface and is usually built of relatively light-weight materials. The basic insulation of roofs should be resistive material to minimize heat loss in cold weather with the addition of a layer of reflective insulation under the roof cladding where summers are warm enough to cause overheating inside the building (which is the case in most localities except those with cool summers). In predominantly warm-hot climates where no winter heating Is required. the use of reflective insulation only may be appropriate. Reflective insulation has a greater resistance to heat flow down (summer) than to heat flow up (winter) because it resists radiant energy flow better than conductive flow. The use of resistive insulation will reduce the conductive losses available from any nightsky cooling effect or air cooling of the roof surface. which is undesirable in warmer climates.

The air space below the reflective insulation in the attic space of a pitched roof need not be ventilated for summer where resistive insulation is included on top of the ceiling. The temperature of a ventilated roof space may be maintained at close to the outside air temperature and although this may be beneficial in summer to reduce heat build-up in the roof space. in cold weather it tends to negate any insulating contribution provided by the roof cladding and the associated reflective insulation. The difference in heat flow through a well-insulated vented roof and a well insulated non-vented roof into the occupied space below is very small. The U-value of a pitched roof with only reflective insulation under the roof cladding is in the order of 1.06 W/m².degC for heat flow in an upward direction and 0.64 W/m².degC for heat flow in a downward direction.

(b) Wall insulation

Insulating framed external walls is generally not difficult because the outer cladding material is usually designed to be a barrier to moisture. In such construction it is important, however, to ensure that a vapour barrier is installed on the warm side of the insulation layer (in cold climates this will be near the inside lining and in the hot humid climates near the outer lining).

Heat bridges in metal frame construction could be a problem in cool temperate climates where condensation will occur, and in hot-arid climates where the walls are exposed to the sun. In such circumstances it is advisable to use an outer layer insulation that covers and thermally isolates the framework from the external cladding material.

(c) Insulation d framed floors over ventilated crawl spaces

In cold climates it is advisable to insulate the underside of framed light-weight floors.

Generally the air under such floors is ventilated to minimize problems caused by dampness. In winter months this results in such spaces being at temperatures close to ambient, hence the need to Insulate to reduce heat losses down through the floor.

(d) Insulation of floor slates on ground

In passive solar building design it should not be necessary to insulate fully between a concrete slab and the ground except in extremely cold climates where in-floor central heating is being installed. The disadvantage of insulating the whole area under the floor slab Is that the house is isolated from the ground, which in winter is warmer and in summer is cooler than the external air conditions. The free heat storage benefits of the ground under the building is lost if full Insulation is used.

A considerable amount of the heat lost through a concrete slab floor flows out through the edges of the slab because it is in much closer contact with the cold outside air. An alternative is to insulate the edge and the perimeter strip of the floor for approximately 600mm. Such measures may only be necessary in cool temperate climates. Perimeter floor slab insulation is recommended in areas of 2000 degree days to base 18.3°C, or greater (a description of heating degree days is covered elsewhere). Such insulation will help to reduce the loss of heat stored in the floor slab. Details of the Installation of edge-of- slab insulation is illustrated in figure 53.

{e) Insulation materials

The minimum insulation levels desirable in roofs, walls and floors will be determined by building codes and regulations In most countries. Optimum levels will be higher and will depend on the installed cost of the products being considered, the local cost of energy for space heating or cooling and the accepted discount rate for finance in the particular country.

Thermal insulation to restrict heat flow into and out of buildings has been well demonstrated to be economically worthwhile. In most situations the optimum levels of insulation will repay their capital outlay in energy savings over a short time. The improvement in thermal comfort of an insulated building compared with an uninsulated dwelling is quite significant, although it can be difficult to evaluate In economic terms when the users are accustomed to lower than average comfort standards. This is often the case in the more temperate climates where it is possible to manage with lower comfort levels. The value of energy savings over time can be determined using conventional discounting techniques as adequately described by Markus and Morris.

Typically uninsulated walls have a U-value of approximately 2.0 W/m² .degC whereas correctly insulated walls have a U-value 0.6 W/m² .degC in temperate climates and lower in more severe climates. Roofs are typically 4.5 W/m² .degC when uninsulated and 0.5 W/m² .degC when insulated in temperate climates.

Thermal insulation generally available for building purposes can be classified into three groups:

(a) Bulk materials;

(b) Reflective foil laminates;

(c) Rigid lightweight boards.

(i) Bulk materials

Bulk materials are available in either flat batt form, blankets or loose fill. The materials most commonly used are rockwool or glass fibre (yellow batts and pink batts). Materials such as eel grass (fine sea weed), acrylic fibre and cellulose fibre (from waste paper) are sometimes used; the latter has been quite popular in recent years due to its lower installed cost.

Rockwool is usually irritating to the skin if handled (during installation) without protection. It withstands high temperatures and is used in boilers etc. It used to be used in buildings in past years but then it went out of favour. It now seems to be coming back. The conductivity of rockwool is 0.035 W/m.degC at the usual density of 48 kg/m .

Glass fibre is most commonly used for bulk insulation of buildings and is known to most people in Australia as either pink batts or yellow batts. It does not withstand such high temperatures as rockwool because glass fuses at about 600C. As a product, it tends to be most resilient and not fall to pieces on the building site if maltreated. It does tend to be irritating if not handled carefully. A popular concern is that it is carcinogenic although evidence seems to show that problems relate to manufacturing conditions only (large quantities of loose fibres) and not to site conditions. where the product is bound together with acrylic or epoxy binders. It is not used in hospitals because of these dangers (especially with regard to operating theatres). The conductivity of glass fibre is 0.042 W/m.degC at a density of 12 kg/m which is the usual value for building grade material. Material with a resistance of R1.2 is approximately 50mm thick whilst material with a resistance of R2.0 is about 90-mm thick, depending on the manufacturer.

Eelgrass, the botanical name for which is Zostera marina, is marketed as alpinete. It is not commonly used in New South Wales, but is more common in Victoria where the material is readily collected from the beaches. It used to be used in South Australia also before the Second World War. It is a fine grade long-strand seaweed and was used extensively in older buildings in Australia and overseas. Eelgrass is dried and treated with a chemical such as borax to make it fire-retardant and resistant to vermin. Its conductivity is 0.048 W/m.degC at a density of 20 kg/m³. It may well be possible to collect it from some of beaches in New South Wales but it needs checking and treating for fire and vermin. It would seem to be an appropriate material for the appropriate technologist.

Cellulose fibre is marketed in Sydney by a number of companies. It has been in use for many years in both Melbourne and Sydney. It is made from waste paper and chemically treated with ground borax powder to make it fire-resistant and rot-resistant. The main difficulty in using it has been quality control when the material is made on site. The industry is working on this problem, which, if not already solved. will be solved soon. Cellulose fibre is non-allergic. Its advantage over batts and blankets is that it will fill crevices and can be blown into confined spaces. The problem is that it is very hard to ensure that there is sufficient material in the right place. Correctly manufactured and installed the conductivity of cellulose fibre is 0.035 W/m.degC. Its cost is competitive with glass fibre at about half to two thirds the price of the latter. It is made from recycled material which is a considerable attraction to some.

Vermiculite was formerly used as an insulator for bolters, hot- water tanks etc. It is too expensive to use as building insulation. It is a naturally-occurring material that expands into a loose flaky material in a kiln. It is generally used today for sprayed ceilings and fire insulation. Its conductivity is 0.067 W/m.degC at a density of 80 kg/m³.

Acrylic fibre is marketed in Australia as Wonder Wool, among other names. It is made from 3 denier x 54-mm long acrylic fibres which have been fused into a matt. It Is treated with a frame retardant (ignitability 14, spread of flame 0, heat evolved 1, smoke developed 5). It resembles fluffy wool and is used industrially behind lining materials such as in railway carriages. It looks like orion pillow filling. It is supplied in various widths and thicknesses. Like cellulose fibre it is non- allergic. Its cost per value of resistance is competitive with other materials. Its conductivity is 0.023 W/m.degC which is better than rockwool (so that a thinner layer is required).

(ii) Reflective foil laminates (RFL) and composites

Aluminium foil is sold under various names such as Sizalation and Renfoil among others. It is a material made up in a sandwich construction as follows:

Aluminium foil

Polyethylene film

Kraft paper

Adhesive and fibre reinforcement grid

Kraft paper

Polyethylene film

Aluminium foil

(The old-style material was Jute and bitumen but today the core is a flame-retarded adhesive and glass-fibre reinforcement).

The aluminium foil sheet is bonded to the kraft paper and the polyethylene film before it is in turn bonded to a second set of the same materials with the reinforcement grid in between.

RFL sheet is available in double- or single-sided laminate, and supported or unsupported foil. It can be fire-resistant or non-fire-resistant, and anti-glare treated or untreated. Single-sided material should only be used in buildings where it is being laminated to another material. Single-sided material is not weather-resistant and so is not suitable for use in roofs where it may also have to be a sarking. Unsupported foils are only used when they are being laminated to another rigid material. Most building codes now require that all RFL laminate be of the fire- retarded quality.

Anti-glare coatings increase the emissivity and reduce the reflectivity of aluminium foil.

Material with an anti-glare coating should be used when the material is being applied in sunny conditions to protect the applicators' eyes from the sun's reflection during Installation. In roofs it should be placed with the anti-glare coating upwards as this side will soon be covered by a dust layer and so will be less effective anyway.

Some manufacturers also make a "vapour-stop" material with a heavier plastic film to ensure a high level of moisture stop. This material can be used in cool rooms and the like where a high level of moisture resistance is required.

The SAA standard for the installation of reflective foil is AS 1904 and it is manufactured to AS 1903.

Aluminium foil is only effective as an insulator when coupled with an air space (minimum 25mm air space). Sheets should overlap 150-mm or be sealed with tape.

RFL used in a ceiling with dust on the top surface has the same effect as 50-mm mineral fibre in summer and 12-mm mineral fibre in winter.

Aluminium foil is often bonded on to a number of products to form a sandwich. The core is usually glass fibre batts or urea formal-dehyde foam. This system provides the benefits of both materials in terms of summer reflectance and winter insulation against heat loss. When used in roofs over ceilings it is important to ensure that such products are placed over the top of joists so that there is an air space under the foil.

(iii) Rigid lightweight boards

Polystyrene (Isolite) is a white, (usually) rigid sheet which can be ordered to any thickness. It is the same material that many architectural students use for model making and from which cheap ESKYs are made. it can be obtained in either standard grade or fire-retarded grade (which is needed for building use). It is reasonably effective in moist situations but it will absorb some moisture (which increases its conductivity). It is commonly used as an edge insulation for concrete slabs and in slab form for wall insulation. When used in that way it can be ordered with a spring edge to assist with securing it between studs. Its conductivityis 0.036 W/m.degC at a density of 24 kg/m³. It is difficult to use in oddshaped spaces because it has to be cut and fitted which is time-consuming. It is often used in bead form (bean-bag-chair filling) for hot-water cylinders and other cavity filling.

Polyurethane (Isothane) has a closed-cell structure. i.e., each bubble of gas is enclosed, unlike polystyrene where the many air pockets are only separated by a thin film that is not impervious. When new, polyurethane Is filled with nitrogen and so has a lower conductivity than if it was filled with air. As it ages this gas leaches out and the conductivity increases gradually. After some years however it is still better than, say. glass fibre but it is more expensive. As a result of the closed-cell structure it tends to be more impervious to moisture. It is available in both standard grade and fire-retarded grade. Its conductivity when new is 0.016 W/m.degC, and 0.025 W/m.degC when aged. The flexible form of this material Is not generally used in building but rather in furniture and the like. Its conductivity is 0.035-0.039 W/m.degC. The rigid form is used In building but more often In cool room construction as it is generally more expensive than the other materials available on the market. It is also available as an in situ foam for use where access to a cavity space is difficult.

Woodwool is marketed in Australia by Stramit Industries as Woodtex, made from regular sized wood shavings or "wool" matted together with a Portland cement binder. The natural colour is grey but it can be supplied painted or coloured on the surface only to give various effects. Generally it is available as 25-mm and 50-mm thick sheets which are usually mounted in a patented steel suspension grid system. These slabs are quite heavy and are used mainly as acoustical absorber panels. Its conductivity is about 0.08 W/m.degC which is about half as good as the same thickness of glass-fibre thermal insulation.

Strawboards come in two principal forms. Solomit is manufactured in Adelaide and is often used as a ceiling material where a straw finish is desired. It is simply straw bound together with wire in such a way as to form a 50-mm thick bats. it is often seen as the ceiling in primary school buildings of the early 1970s period and in some child-care centres. Some architects have used it as a ceiling in domestic work where all the other materials are natural-finished.

Stramit is another of these products but has a paper covering to which various coatings are applied, including chopped straw. This material is also sold in 50-mm thick sheets. As a nonstructural ceiling it will span the width of the sheet which is 1.2m.

The conductivity of these materials is generally higher than glass fibre and so additional material is required to achieve an added resistance of R2.0 as required for Sydney. The conductivity of Solomit is 0.041 W/m.degC at a density of 213 kg/m³ and of Stramit board it is 0.081 W/m.degC at a density of 320kg/m³.

Fibreboard is marketed as Canite and is generally 12-mm or 20-mm thick. In some places such as Queensland It is available in thicker sheets. Sheets are usually 1200-mm wide and 1.8. 2.4 or 3.0-metres long. Fibre-board is often used as a ceiling but it must be well supported because it sags or settles with time. It is used in schools as pinboard material. Its conductivity varies with temperature and moisture, i.e., k = 0.062 at 23°C and 0.048 at 21°C. The density is usually about 215 kg/m and an average conductivity of 0.06 w/m.degC can be assumed.

Urea formaldehyde can be obtained in slab form formed between two sheets of foil but it is generally formed in situ It looks rather like pressure pack shaving cream or mock dessert cream when first made. It is marketed in New South Wales by two main suppliers through a number of outlets - HEIMAX and ICI. The foam is made on site by adding a foaming agent (liquid) to the ureaformaldehyde resin in very carefully measured quantities. The mixing occurs in the dispensing gun and must be tested on site for the correct mix (springy lump on the ground, not limp). As the chemical reaction takes place some water is liberated which is normally absorbed by the surrounding materials. There is some shrinkage on setting which should not exceed about 3 per cent by volume; although the installation standard states 5 per cent. After it is placed from a hose it takes 4 to 5 minutes to set, and 24 hours for a complete set and cure. It has been in use In industry for about 25 years although its use in the building industry is quite recent (since about 1975). Its cost is competitive with glass fibre but it should be used in places where it is not subject to mechanical damage. as it crushes to a powder after curing. It is ideal for use where the cavity is too inaccessible to place other batt type materials as it can be pumped through a long 12-mm hose over quite a distance. There has been some concern about the safety of the product as it does release a small amount of formaldahyde gas during the curing. The amount released is very small when compared with particle-board flooring and furniture. There is no evidence that it acts as a bridge for water to cross a brick cavity. Experience with seven houses has revealed no problem. Due to the bad press publicity it has received in the past it tends to be used more as a pre-cured slab material.

3. Draught control

The infiltration of cold air in winter can result in considerable discomfort for the occupants and a large additional energy consumption if they try to combat the problem with heating. Research has shown that on many occasions the most cost- effective strategy to reduce heating loads is to reduce unwanted infiltration. During hot summer days when outdoor temperatures exceed indoor comfort temperatures substantially, unwanted infiltration will also cause discomfort and drain the interior of stored coolness.

The calculation of heat flow due to infiltration has been explained fully in chapter III under "Air infiltration".

The flow of air into and out of a building should be at the discretion of the occupants who can choose the conditions they desire. Fixed ventilation does not allow that choice and can too often be a source of discomfort for the occupants. Often a lack of ventilation is blamed for condensation problems caused by chilled surfaces. Such problems are considerably reduced in correctly insulated buildings. In such rooms as bathrooms and kitchens, where condensation is a problem, it is better to provide positive ventilation (exhaust fans) at the time the moisture is generated than to build in fixed ventilation which cannot be controlled.

Unintentional infiltration can be the result of choice of construction details and building design. The following points are provided as a design and detailing checklist.

(a) Major entrances and commonly used doorways from outside should be isolated by lobbies or vestibules. Such lobbies should have doors to isolate them from living areas and other habitable rooms;

(b) Fireplaces should be fitted with dampers to close off the flue when not in use;

(c) Exhaust fans should be fitted with positive action shutters to close when off;

(d) Windows should be selected or detailed to allow locking in the partially open position in preference to fixed ventilation;

(e) Care should be taken to ensure the junction of different materials is sealed. Common areas of difficulty are windows installed into face brickwork inside and out, junctions of walls and exposed-beam roof structures and Junction details where open joint shadow line detailing is used. Exposed timber floors should be sealed at the perimeter with a flexible sealant.

The amount of fresh air required in a space depends on the concentration of pollutants and the number of occupants. In houses, about 20-30 m³ /hour of fresh air per person is sufficient for most activities. In terms of the volume of an average dwelling of 100 m of habitable space with an average of four occupants, one air change every two hours is quite adequate in cold weather. Research has found that in older dwellings with fixed ventilators in each room and exposed timber floors, the air change rate can be as high as 10-15 air changes per hour. In modern dwellings with concrete slab floors the figure is more commonly 1-2 air changes per hour.