From Ideology to Inquiry: Mediating
Asian and Western Values in ELT
Le Van Canh, M.A.
Teachers are the crossroads for cross-cultural professional and
ethical issues in education.
For good or ill, the dominance of English as the world’s
Ideology in ELT Practice in Asian Contexts
preferred second or foreign language has been increas-
ing in recent years. One key reason for its inclusion in
Education does not exist in a social or political vac-
the school curriculum of Asian countries is the recogni-
uum. Teachers, learners, and other stakeholders in an
tion that it can contribute to students’ personal, linguis-
educational system are part of the ideology dominating
tic, social, and cultural development. English can help
the social system in which they operate.
In the
prepare them for their future careers and provide them
Cambridge International Dictionary of English,
with access to information, especially concerning
“ideology” is defined as “a theory, or set of beliefs or
science and technology, which matters greatly to Asian
principles, especially one on which a political system,
countries seeking modernization and economic growth.
party or organization is based.” From this defition, we
English language teaching is thus seen to be
can define educational ideology as a shared body of
instrumental in preparing younger generations for life in
principles and beliefs concerning the nature of knowl-
the present-day global village. Put simply, English
edge, the nature of teaching and learning—including
cultural assumptions about the roles of teachers and
teaching can serve individual, national, and international
learners—and the purpose of education. This means
needs and desires.
the way we teach reflects our fundamental, but implic-
While a healthy attitude toward English as an instru-
it and subconscious, assumptions about appropriate
ment for scientific and technological advancement and
classroom behaviors. In other words, educational ideol-
economic growth has emerged in Asia, English teaching
ogy determines how teachers interpret classroom
in Asian countries remains far from satisfactory. This is
events. It is “involved in the process of setting up con-
attributed to many causes, the most important of which
texts that construe meaning for particular teaching
is inadequate teaching methodology which is grammar-
acts”(Tollefson, p. 49). “Ideology thus becomes a part of
based, textbook-focused, and examination-centered.
language pedagogy simply because language is bound
Grammar-based language teaching is no longer suffi-
up with ideology” (Prabhu). Therefore, different ideo-
cient. English language teaching in Asia needs to rede-
logical positions lead to either acceptance or refusal of
fine its objectives, placing greater emphasis on the culti-
particular teaching methods, the preference of a partic-
vation of practical communication abilities as well as
ular classroom interaction pattern on the part of both
intellectual growth. This requires innovation in teaching
teachers and learners. It is natural that teachers, when
practice.
Unfortunately, innovation initiatives often
deciding what materials and methods they are going to
struggle against tradition, cynicism, and claims of cultur-
employ, base their choices on models they have already
al differences. In this article, my discussion focuses on
experienced, are familiar with, and expect to function
the following issues: (1) the role of ideology in ELT
well in the future. If methodological initiatives contra-
practice in Asian contexts; (2) the role of teachers in rela-
dict their established ideology, they resist on account of
tion to this issue in Asian contexts; (3) solutions to medi-
contextual factors (Sampson; Holliday; Hird; Ellis; Li).
ating conflicting ideologies in ELT practice; and (4)
The most outstanding difference between Western
measures to be taken to improve teachers’ continuing
classical humanism and Asian educational philosophy is
professional development.
that the former places greater emphasis on the cultiva-
tion of intellectual skills to foster the next generation’s
leaders while the latter is primarily concerned with the
Teacher’s Edition
— 28 —
September 2004
development of moral virtue to promote a static social
Teachers’ Roles in Relation to Ideology in
order. The educational philosophy prevailing in most
Asian Contexts
East and Southeast Asian nations is deeply rooted in
Confucianism. Shen points out three major influences
Brownrigg makes a point that Eastern educational phi-
of Confucianism on education: (1) examination-oriented
losophy “places the teacher in a position of absolute
instruction; (2) book-based instruction; and (3) greater
authority” (p. 4).This differs from a Western perspective,
emphasis on social rather than individual development.
which views teachers as those who “encourage their stu-
These characteristic features of Confucianism remain
dents to think and learn independently, as well as to devel-
the backbone of contemporary educational philosophy
op analytical and questioning abilities.” The confrontation
in most Asian countries. Meritocracy and egalitarianism
between Asian and Western educational ideologies lies in
are the two most influential elements of Asian educa-
this view of the teacher’s roles. If Asian teachers are
tion, which have driven Asian students toward academic
expected to be transmitters of culture who maintain the
achievement through hard work. The neglect of oral
status quo and transmit prevailing culture,Western teach-
ability in Asian educational practices is in fact the legacy
ers are considered to be transformers of culture.
of an earlier age.
The widespread belief in the indispensable role of
Confucian teaching provides theoretical principles
teachers, and students’ unquestioning acceptance of
underlying present-day perspectives on education: the
information presented to them, remain at the core of
emphasis on vertical relationships, the focus on a trans-
most Asian education systems.
Since education is
fer of knowledge from teacher to learner, and repetition
viewed as a means for moral cultivation, the teacher is
and rote learning as means of achieving academic mas-
expected to be the exemplary model of a virtuous per-
tery.Teaching aims at mastery of a subject, as measured
son. The respect for vertical relationships leads to the
by what learners say about the subject in knowledge-
belief that teachers are wise authority figures whose
based, norm-referenced examinations. Such teaching is
word carries great weight (McLaren).
heavily structured and constrains the dynamics of the
Since Asian cultures are characterized as xenopho-
teaching and learning process—it is presumed that intel-
bic, initiatives underpinned by Western ideology that
ligence is already developed and learners’ mastery of the
recognize that “intelligence” is not one-dimensional—
subject is the main goal. In language classrooms, then,
that people have “multiple intelligences” (Gardner) and
this paradigm results in rote learning of rules, with little
that learning is an active process in which students con-
or no encouragement of using English for communica-
struct knowledge—sound exotic and are resisted
tive purposes and little development of creative or inde-
because they would ruin teachers’ established beliefs
pendent thinking. English has been viewed as an aca-
and implicit values.
demic subject by which students can develop an ability
Of course, there are many Asian teachers who do
to analyze a foreign language and build up the skill of
believe that classroom language acquisition is best fos-
reading (Sabatini et al.). As a result, in Asia the grammar-
tered in positive affective conditions in which stress is
translation method remains the most dominant method,
facilitative, not debilitative, and in which the atmosphere
although the audiolingual approach and communicative
is nurturing yet challenging and motivating. These
methods have also been introduced. Exams are the driv-
teachers believe that the classroom must provide input
ing force in this, as teachers feel compelled to use the
and opportunities for interaction and student output.
grammar-translation method to prepare students for
They believe that while the goals of English teaching
grammar-centered examinations. Briefly described, the
and learning can be diverse according to various con-
teaching of EFL in most Asian countries is dominated by
texts and purposes, affective, social, and humanistic
a teacher-centered, book-centered, grammar-translation
goals apply across the board. However, when these
method and an emphasis on rote memory (Liu and
teachers try out alternatives to the traditional teaching
Littlewood). These traditional approaches to teaching
model, they often fail because of both internal and exter-
have convinced students that knowledge is something
nal factors such as inadequacy of training in using new
that is transmitted by the teacher rather than discovered
models, outdated examination methods, and prescribed
by themselves. Liu and Littlewood found that students’
“listening to teacher” was the leading activity in senior
textbooks. They get frustrated and come to the conclu-
English classes in Chinese schools.
sion that “our context is different.” The consequence of
this is a return to traditional models.
Teacher’s Edition
— 29 —
September 2004
Out in the real world, meantime, students’ needs in
treatments. Barrett distinguishes between weak and
learning English have changed radically. For most of
strong models of cultural effects. A weak model of cul-
them, English will deliver access to technology, informa-
ture states simply that people of different cultures differ;
tion, further study, professional development, and inter-
in statistical terms, cultures differ in their mean values
action with others. Given these purposes, English teach-
on certain variables or in their probabilities of demon-
ing must be considered to be a capacity-building tool. It
strating certain characteristics. Cultures are known to
should go beyond being a skill-based, functional activity
differ also in modal behaviors, attitudes, or abilities. But
to become a vehicle for intellectual development and
both professional psychology and education have gone
intercultural communication. Teaching English today is
beyond this weak model of cultural influences. The
all about opening doors and opening up opportunities
strong position is that persons from different back-
to engage and participate in a larger outside world.
grounds differ in their fundamental psychological
In order to accommodate these emergent needs,
processes, including how they learn, how they experi-
English language teachers need to be able to help stu-
ence and cope with anxiety, and how they respond to
dents develop critical thinking skills, grapple with cur-
social environments. All psychological interventions are
rent global issues, gain a sense of their social responsi-
thus culture-specific in their effects, which also means
bility to contribute productively to a better world,
that all instructional strategies are culture-specific in
respect the moral and cultural heritages of others, and
their effects. In education, this strong position implies
enrich their own traditional values.
This required
that teachers should consider using different method-
change in the practice of English language teaching and
ologies depending on learners’ backgrounds. In other
learning in Asia constitutes a departure from canonical
words, learners’ cultures determine which instructional
views of curriculum and from textbook-centered or
interventions are effective or ineffective.
recitation-style teaching. It demands a greater facility
The picture that often emerges from educational
among EFL teachers for organizing students’ opportuni-
research literature on Asian learners is a caricature of rote
ties to learn. It represents, on the whole, a substantial
learning, memorization, and passivity, and Asian cultures
departure from teachers’ prior experience and estab-
are characterized as low on individualism and high on col-
lished beliefs, as well as an expansion of their present
lectivism. However,there have been success stories about
practice. Indeed, it holds out an image of conditions of
customized applications of Western teaching models in
learning for students that their teachers have themselves
Asian contexts. For example, Coleman reports success in
only rarely experienced. As a result, teachers are expect-
changing the behavior of Indonesian teachers and stu-
ed to move on many fronts simultaneously so as to take
dents in English classrooms,and Ho and Crookall describe
on the role of ideological mediators in alternative peda-
how Hong Kong English students achieved a high degree
gogic discourses and practices.
of autonomy in the context of a simulation. Similarly,
Marshall and Torpey have succeeded in involving
Teachers as Mediating Agents of
Japanese students in “actively co-constructing a syllabus.”
Conflicting Ideologies
Furthermore, Littlewood notes that “Asian students
do not, in fact, wish to be spoon-fed with facts from an
Since at least the late 1980s, the American
all-knowing ‘fount of knowledge.’ They want to explore
Psychological Association has embraced the notion that
knowledge themselves and find their own answers.
cultural differences limit the possibilities for human
Most of all, they want to do this together with their fel-
understanding. It is now an unchallenged tenet of pro-
low students in an atmosphere which is friendly and
fessional psychology that clients’ cultural backgrounds
supportive” (p. 34). So the claim that Asian students are
must be an important factor in deciding on appropriate
passive does not stand up to close examination. Their
passiveness in learning is a product of traditional
Persons from different backgrounds differ in their fundamental
psychological processes, including how they learn, how they experience
and cope with anxiety, and how they respond to social environments.
Teacher’s Edition
— 30 —
September 2004
teaching. Once teaching methods are adjusted toward
For the successful implementation of our role as
acceptance of student autonomy,Asian students are cer-
mediators of ideological differences in ELT in Asian con-
tain to become more active in the learning process
texts, I recommend a “three Is” model of learning to
(Canh).
teach—imitation, indigenization, innovation. To start
Students’ emerging need to learn English as a capac-
with, motivation to become the teachers we most want
ity-building tool acknowledges that the transmission of
to be is of primary significance since it allows us to
knowledge is no longer sufficient for an educated citi-
change our mindsets and adopt or imitate models of
zenry. Moreover, in the age of the learning society, edu-
teaching that are promoted globally. The application of
cation is seen as a process, not a product. During the
new teaching models should be gradual, beginning with
teaching and learning process, students should learn
an identification of students’ assumptions about the
how to think and listen, how to participate in dialogue,
nature of language learning, their interests, concerns,
how to analyze issues, and how to read critically. They
and goals in language learning. The gradual introduction
should learn how to write so that others can follow their
of new models is critical to assure student achievement.
thinking. Most importantly, students need to be able to
If students can see their achievement with the new
solve problems in a rational manner, to experience com-
teaching models, they will become more confident and
passion towards others, and to be willing and able to
this will, in turn, be a great encouragement for teachers.
acknowledge conflict and contradiction and resolve dif-
Then students can be allowed to make their own choic-
ferences in a satisfactory manner. Such a perspective on
es about models. In addition to students’ reactions to
language education requires us as EFL professionals to
new models, we need to revise them by following a
model learning based on experience, expand our expe-
recurring cycle familiar from action research—planning
rience through engagement with multiple perspectives,
classroom activities, implementing and observing those
and integrate multiple perspectives and existing knowl-
activities, reflecting on them, and then indigenizing or
edge to make decisions about what to believe and prac-
localizing them. The indigenized models will be then be
tice. Such teaching is not determined by particular
revised again and made explicit in an articulation
methods but rather by the way we view knowledge,
process involving colleagues in order to innovate them.
authority, and learner capability.
The imitation-indigenization-innovation model, I believe,
There is no denying that language teaching is not
will enable us to critically reexamine not only alterna-
just methodology, but a political act of cultural produc-
tive models of teaching, but also our current practice,
tion and reproduction which is linked to cultural ide-
and thereby to develop our competence in seeking new
ologies (Larsen-Freeman). However, ideology is never
solutions to problems. Professional growth is achievable
one-way traffic, and ideological interaction helps teach-
only for those who are strongly committed to change. If
ers keep their teaching from becoming stale and overly
we do not accept the need for change, for renewal and
routinized (Prabhu). This mediation process broadens
reform, we deny dynamism to our profession
teachers’ vision, helping them take foreign educational
(Widdowson, p. 86).
ideas and adapt them to their own purposes. It is
By following the model I have suggested, we can
through this movement from ideology to inquiry that
realize that “change” does not mean breaking traditions,
Asian English teachers come to realize that Western
rather it means building on traditions, combining what is
insights into language teaching are a resource to be con-
best from tradition and newly acquired knowledge. Put
textualized rather than a universal blueprint (Maley).
another way, change requires our active engagement in
Teachers who know how to customize and indigenize
learning about new perspectives and new options—we
Western “products” for their own “market” have a bal-
are ourselves learners who seek to integrate new per-
anced perspective. This outlook stresses the need for a
spectives into our thinking and beliefs. “We need a
comprehensive philosophy of life which creatively syn-
recognition that what is at the heart of teaching is intel-
thesizes and integrates the highest cultural values of Asia
lectual inquiry and experimentation, operational
and the West, and reconciles the economic, political, sci-
research which uses various techniques to test out prin-
entific, and humanistic values of the West with the psy-
ciples explicitly spelled out” (Widdowson, p. 88). As we
chological, ontological, and spiritual values of Asia.
have moved into the “post-method” age, we need to take
Within this climate, multiple ways of teaching and learn-
initiative to find out what works best for ourselves and
ing can be fostered. This is an idealistic picture, but one
our learners.
This process of self-inquiry gets us
worth striving for in practice.
involved in working out new ideas and methodologies,
Teacher’s Edition
— 31 —
September 2004
testing them, and revising our perceptions of teaching
encouragement, motivation, and support. While the ben-
and learning by asking ourselves questions regarding
efits from such development are clear, it is nonetheless
our learners’ needs, motivations, beliefs, and attitudes as
true that a majority of Asian English teachers do not have
well as our own. We need to question ourselves about
access to professional growth opportunities due to
the cultural, political, social, and economic implications
financial incapacity. In fact,“jet-in, jet-out” or “quick fix”
of English language teaching and the world that English
in-service training has been provided in most Asian
language teaching can open up to our students. To
countries, but this method of professional development
achieve this goal, it is imperative that opportunities for
can at best bring about only surface change. In order to
ongoing professional development be fostered with a
enable teachers to function effectively in their role as
view to helping teachers theorize and conceptualize
agents of change, I recommend the following measures
their own practice, as a basis for articulating, examining,
as of primary importance for the improvement of teach-
and revising their perceptions and beliefs.
ers’ continuing professional development.
(1) Motivation is the key to effective professional
Providing Support Through Ongoing
development. Motivating teachers to get involved in
Professional Development
continuing professional development is the most deci-
sive. Teachers’ low status, low salaries, and poor working
The teacher as a mediating agent of change plays a
conditions result in a depressed profession with poor
pivotal role in the teaching-learning process.
motivation. While it is still difficult to improve teachers’
Educational quality cannot be raised beyond the levels
working conditions and salaries in many Asian
of the teachers. While external factors such as salaries
economies, incentives should be provided for any suc-
and working conditions have occupied much attention,
cess in teaching innovation. Incentives can be provided
we must also stress internal factors, especially the desire
in the form of a bonus or opportunities for promotion,
of teachers to do quality teaching. It is critical that
further study, or participation in professional develop-
teachers’ subject knowledge be strengthened and their
ment events such as professional workshops or interna-
vision of teaching broadened. Teachers’ poor knowledge
tional conferences. Another way to motivate teachers to
bases lead to poor pedagogical practices, which in turn
engage in continuing professional development is to
result in students’ poor learning. With a better knowl-
empower them so that they can have a say in the deci-
edge base, teachers would be in a better position to
sion-making process behind changes in syllabi and mate-
examine their pedagogical practices and inquire into
rials. Asian society remains hierarchical, yet it would be
new strategies to maximize learning. Unfortunately, in
a great encouragement to teachers if they know their
Asian countries a focus on mere professional skills does
voices were heard prior to any top-down, coercive deci-
not result in teachers who are agents of change. As a
sion.
result, they often lack the preparation to feel comfort-
(2) Observation is an effective tool for improving
able adopting and adapting new teaching styles.
instructional practices. Each school should create a
A recent shift of focus in the field of English lan-
healthy environment for teacher participation in non-
guage education puts more emphasis on teachers than
judgmental observations. As Edge wrote: “ The single
on methodology. Like world peace, poverty reduction,
most important change we can hope for in teaching is
or anti-terrorism, continuing professional development
for teachers who trust each other to visit each other’s
is something it is difficult not to be in favor of. Teachers
lessons, not to evaluate, but to share” (p. 12). Face is an
who give up ongoing development will sooner or
important value shared by many Asian cultures. Non-
later—probably sooner—cease to be competent.
judgmental observation helps teachers do away with
Teachers committed to professional development need
their fear of “losing face.” Also, this type of classroom
observation is a powerful way to impact classroom
Educational quality cannot be raised beyond the levels of the teachers.
Teacher’s Edition
— 32 —
September 2004
behavior. The observer not only acts as another set of
with new techniques. Considerable evidence (see, for
“eyes and ears” for the teacher, but also learns as he
example, Fullan and Watson) indicates that before teach-
views his colleague in action.
ers can be expected to become reflective practitioners,
(3) Networking is of great help. While many Asian
they need to develop a solid repertoire of teaching
EFL teachers have limited or no access to agents of
skills. Too many training initiatives from Western coun-
change, the networking of EFL teachers across a country
tries are transferred inappropriately to countries in
and a region can provide a good forum for sharing expe-
which teachers have not yet mastered the basics of sub-
riences and learning from one another. It helps to keep
ject knowledge and pedagogical skill. This is one of the
teachers abreast of the latest developments in their field
prime causes of resistance to adapting new approaches,
on the national, regional, and global levels. Such net-
though such resistance is often mistakenly attributed to
working is a catalyst for teachers to change their practice.
differing cultural values.
(4) Support should be combined with pressure.
The possibility of change is increased when support and
Conclusion
pressure are combined in a seamless way. “Pressure
without support leads to resistance and alienation; sup-
The economically and culturally dynamic context of
port without pressure leads to drift or waste of
Asia requires us to move away from ideology to inquiry
resources” (Fullan, p. 91). This requires each school to
in order to approach English teaching with an open
set up regulations to institutionalize teacher change and
mind. We must remain professionally self-aware, so as
teacher inquiry—implementing mandated change and
not to be trapped by stereotypes or knee-jerk political or
exploring their own teaching and classes to seek ways of
cultural reactions. We can look for common ground or
improving their teaching processes. Individual teachers
common potentials. Western language teaching per-
need to be guided in how to implement mandated
change, how to formulate questions about their own
spectives may carry a lot of cultural and ideological bag-
practice, and how to pursue answers to these questions.
gage, but the door swings both ways. By mediating ide-
In this process, not only teachers’ personal theories but
ological differences in teaching and learning through
also the required changes can be challenged, evaluated,
inquiry, we can create more pedagogical choices, there-
and revised so that the new policies can be modified
by contributing actively to the regional and internation-
based on local responses. This approach combines top-
al development of our profession.
down and bottom-up change, thereby avoiding both
Teachers determine educational quality and play a
non-commitment to mandated change and unstructured
central role in educational innovation. For successful
local changes.
change, it is critical that teachers’ continuing profession-
(5) Training and development are on the same
al development be improved in ways that ease teachers’
continuum. Teachers implementing change need in-
fears that their cultural values, attitudes, and beliefs are
service training. Before they can be expected to engage
being threatened or attacked. This kind of program
actively in real professional development activities, they
seeks a balance between top-down and bottom-up
must be trained sufficiently in core teaching skills and
change by combining coercion—that is, requiring or
competencies, as well as in new skills and a more sophis-
mandating change—with a more participatory
ticated understanding of what teachers do. Thus, pro-
approach. Within the balance, teachers cannot simply
fessional development is an ongoing process rather than
reject change but are encouraged to evaluate, modify,
a “quick fix”workshop or in-service course. Perceived in
and try again. This empowers teachers, reducing poten-
this way, in-service training must at first be prescriptive
tial feelings of resentment while still holding them
to a large extent, demonstrating clearly what is required
accountable.
in this new approach to teaching and providing oppor-
tunities for teachers to experience and practice it. Once
This article was originally given as a Featured Speaker
they have mastered basic teaching skills, they should be
presentation at the 1st Asia TEFL International
credited with maturity and intelligence to adapt, throw
Conference, “TEFL in Asia: Emerging Issues,” held
out, or stick with whichever elements they choose.
Only at this point does real in-service teacher develop-
November 7-9, 2003, in Busan, South Korea.
ment work begin. My assumption is that beliefs about
teaching will change once teachers experience success
Teacher’s Edition
— 33 —
September 2004
References
2000.
Barrett, D.E. “Does Culture Matter?” Society pp. 92-96,
Li, D. “‘It’s Always More Difficult Than You Plan and
November-December 2002.
Imagine’: Teachers’ Perceived Difficulties in Introducing
the Communicative Approach in South Korea.” TESOL
Brownrigg, R. “From Traditional to Contemporary in
Quarterly 32 (4), pp. 677-703, 1998.
Second Language Teaching.” Teacher’s Edition 5, pp. 4-
7, March 2001.
Littlewood, W. “Do Asian Students Really Want to Listen
and Obey?” ELT Journal 54 (1), pp. 31-35, 2000.
Canh, L.V.
“Language and Vietnamese Pedagogical
Contexts.” In Partnership and Interaction. Proceedings
Liu, N., and W. Littlewood. “Why Do Many Students
of the Fourth International Conference on Language and
Appear Reluctant to Participate in Classroom Learning
Development. Ed. J. Shaw, D. Lubelska, and M. Noullet.
Discourse?” System 25 (3), pp. 371-384, 1997.
Asian Institute of Technology, pp. 73-79, 2000. Reprinted
Maley, A. “One-Size Theory That Doesn’t Fit All.” The
in Teacher’s Edition 7, pp. 34-40, November 2001.
Guardian Weekly, September 2000.
Coleman, H.
“Teaching Spectacles and Learning
Marshall, N., and M. Torpey. “Autonomy and Interaction
Festivals.” ELT Journal 41 (2), pp. 97-103, 1987.
in a Self-Directed Classroom.” In Applying Linguistics:
Edge, J.
Essentials of English Language Teaching.
Insights Into Language in Education. Ed. V. Berry, B.
Longman, 1993.
Adamson, and W. Littlewood. University of Hong Kong,
1997.
Ellis, G.
“How Culturally Inappropriate is the
Communicative Approach?” ELT Journal 50 (3), pp. 213-
McLaren, M. Interpreting Cultural Differences. Peter
218, 1996.
Francis Publishers, 1998.
Fullan, M., with S. Stiegelbauer. The New Meaning of
Prabhu, N.S. “There Is No Best Method? Why?” TESOL
Educational Change. Teachers College Press, 1991.
Quarterly 24 (2), pp. 161-176, 1990.
Fullan, M., and N. Watson. “School-Based Management:
-----. “Concept and Conduct in Language Pedagogy.” In
Reconceptualizing to Improve Learning Outcomes.”
Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics: Studies in
School Effectiveness and School Improvement 11 (4),
Honour of H.G. Widdowson.
Ed. G. Cook and B.
pp. 453-473, 2000.
Seidlhoffer. Oxford University Press, pp. 57-72, 1995.
Gardner, H. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Sabatini, Y., Y. Matsumura, and Y. Tamura. “Report on a
Intelligences. Basic Books, 1983.
Lecture by Dr. Stephen J. Gaies: ‘Philosophical and
Historical Foundations of ELT in Japan.’” The Language
Hird, B. “How Communicative Can English Language
Teacher Online, 1997.
Teaching Be in China?” Prospect 10 (3), pp. 21-27, 1995.
http://language.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/nov/
Ho, J., and D. Crookall. “Breaking With Chinese Cultural
gaies.html.
Traditions: Learner Autonomy in English Language
Sampson, G. “Exporting Language Teaching Methods
Teaching.” System 23 (2), pp. 235-243, 1995.
From Canada to China.” TESL Canada Journal 1 (1), pp.
Holliday, A.R. “Tissue Rejection and Informal Orders in
19-31, 1984.
ELT Projects: Collecting the Right Information.” Applied
Shen, J. “Confucius.”
In Fifty Major Thinkers on
Linguistics 13 (4), pp. 404-424, 1992.
Education. Ed. J.A. Palmer. Routledge, pp. 1-4, 2001.
-----.
Appropriate Methodology and Social Context.
Tollefson, J.
“Language Ideology and Language
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Education.”
In Partnership and Interaction.
Larsen-Freeman, D.
“On the Appropriateness of
Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on
Language Teaching Methods in Language and
Language and Development. Ed. J. Shaw, D. Lubelska, and
Development.”
In Partnership and Interaction.
M. Noullet. Asian Institute of Technology, pp. 43-52,
Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on
2000.
Language and Development. Ed. J. Shaw, D. Lubelska, and
Widdowson, H.G. “The Incentive Value of Theory in
M. Noullet. Asian Institute of Technology, pp. 65-72,
Teacher’s Edition
— 34 —
September 2004
Teacher Education.” ELT Journal 38 (2), pp. 86-90, 1986.
1979, has done many conference presentations and arti-
cles, and is currently completing an Ed.D. with La Trobe
OOOOO
University in Australia. From 1998-2002, he worked as a
Le Van Canh (M.A., TESOL, St. Michael’s College) is the
local consultant for the British Council’s English
Director of the International Relations Office of the
Language Teacher Training Project in Vietnam. He has
College of Foreign Languages, Vietnam National
contributed three previous articles to Teacher’s Edition.
University, Hanoi, where he is also involved in teaching
OOOOO
and teacher education. He started his teaching career in
Resource Bulletin Board
Teaching As a Moral Enterprise
Brad Baurain, M.A.
Johnston, Bill. Values in English Language
cal philosophy and too easily finds the limits of rational-
Teaching. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003. ISBN# 0-8058-
ity, and I wish he had drawn even more upon work done
4294-2.
in general education. Yet perhaps these are subjects for
further books and articles—his excellent thumbnail list
A rediscovery of teaching as a moral enterprise is blos-
in chapter 7 of moral dilemmas in the field of ELT is
soming in the world of TESOL. At least, I hope it is. In
essentially an invitation for others to build on his intro-
fact, I am puzzled by how and why such a foundational
ductory discussions.
truth was ever “forgotten.” Nonetheless, Bill Johnston is
Johnston writes with exceptional clarity, addressing
right on target in the preface to his book, Values in
complex issues with both professionalism and readabili-
English Language Teaching, when he points out that
ty. (Anyone leafing through TESOL Quarterly knows
moral issues “are rarely if ever raised in print in the pro-
how rare a commodity the latter is these days.) The nar-
fessional dialogue of our field, and they are certainly not
rative examples, which constitute one of the book’s
given the attention they deserve” (p. ix).
strongest features, are particularly well-chosen and res-
Values in English Language Teaching sets out to
onate strongly with the “teacher in the street.” In addi-
rectify this neglect. Johnston focuses on the moral
tion, I give Johnston credit for adding courage to his sen-
dimensions of classroom relationships, depicting teach-
sitivity or tolerance—that is to say, he does not duck
ing not as a matter primarily of knowledge acquisition
tough issues. He presents his own moral commitments
or skill development, but as an endeavor that succeeds
in balanced fashion, suggests that some values might
or fails based on how and why the relevant relationships
indeed be universal, and argues forcefully for the value-
are conducted. His examples and analyses are highly
laden effects or consequences of what teachers do.
contextualized and usually center around conflict:
A Vietnamese proverb says: “First learn behavior,
Within a given set of circumstances and people, teachers
then learn the lesson.” In addressing this core aspect of
find themselves choosing among competing values.
teaching and summoning ELT practitioners to new
How and why they do so is what intrigues and excites
thought paradigms, Values in English Language
Johnston.
Teaching is a truly outstanding book.
Chapters include “The Teacher as Moral Agent,”
“Morality in Classroom Interaction,” “Values and the
Brad Baurain (M.A., English, University of Illinois at
Politics of English Language Teaching,” and “The Morality
Chicago) has taught in Vietnam, China, and the
of Testing and Assessment.” As one might expect in this
United States, and is currently at Dalat University. He
day and age, Johnston disavows the idea of moral
is the Curriculum Director for ELI Vietnam and the
absolutes, speaking instead of constant beliefs held by
editor of Teacher’s Edition.
individuals. For my taste, he too quickly dismisses ethi-
Teacher’s Edition
— 35 —
September 2004
|
