Critical Language Awareness and
Teaching Academic Writing
Tran Thi Ly, M.Ed.
How can the tension between teaching norms and conventions and
developing personal style be fruitfully resolved?
Communication—especially written communication—
critical views towards conventions of written English—
is a complex process involving more than a transfer of
for instance, conventional ways of creating coherence
information through conforming to a set of conventions
and cohesion through the use of linking words,
of a particular discourse community. It is partly related
synonyms, and demonstrative pronouns, and the repeti-
to personal voice or expression and the act of “decoding
tion of key words—should be included in the teaching
culture” (Kramsch, cited in Liddicoat, p. 13). Thus, to
of writing.
what extent we should accommodate the rhetorical
Regarding the relationship between the develop-
practices of the target discourse, and at the same time
ment of language awareness and the language practices
retain cultural and personal values in academic writing,
of the learner, Fairclough to some extent shares with
is an issue of much concern to teachers and researchers.
those authors who advocate the communicative
This article centers on the role of critical language
approach the view that language practice should be
awareness as a tool to help teachers and students gain
purpose-oriented and closely related to the real needs
deeper insights into the nature of teaching and learning
and motivations of specific real audiences. However,
academic writing in Vietnamese English university class-
while writers such as Brown, Larsen-Freeman, and
rooms. It is also an attempt to address the conflict
Richards and Rodgers place great emphasis on the func-
between students’ need to learn and conform to existing
tional and communicative aspects of language practice,
conventions, and their desire to write in a personal style
Fairclough elaborates on the opportunity given to learn-
deeply shaped by their attitudes, interests, and in partic-
ers to “experience authentically the risks and potential
ular their sociocultural norms. Several alternatives will
benefits of particular decisions” (p.16). That is, critical
be discussed for helping Vietnamese students develop
language awareness takes into consideration not only
their skills in academic writing in a way that maintains a
the form and function of language, but also the com-
balance between their commitment to the conventions
plexities of how power relations shape language.
and their personal and cultural voice.
Furthermore, critical teachers, according to Janks and
Ivanic, should assist students in turning awareness into
What Is Critical Language Awareness?
action by giving them opportunities to build on it and
develop themselves as “responsible and empowered
A significant educational development during the
language users” (p. 321). This view of critical language
1990s was the emergence and growth of the critical lan-
awareness is reflected in the combination with a learn-
guage approach, which offers a new outlook on lan-
er-centered pedagogy in Mckenzie’s writing. He, for
guage teaching in general and the development of learn-
instance, emphasizes students’ capability and right to
ers’ language practice in particular. In an overview of
generate material through a process of topic negotia-
the nature of critical language awareness, Fairclough
tion between students and teachers as “one kind of
states that this approach highlights the link between lan-
empowerment.”
guage education and power, the gap between social or
institutional conventions, and learners’ concerns in
Critical Language Awareness in the
terms of language practices (p. 2). Fairclough also sug-
Teaching of Writing
gests that learners should be encouraged to challenge
the dominant rules concerning “appropriateness” in
In light of critical language awareness, pedagogical
written standard English. This implies that students’
implications for the teaching of writing can be derived.
Teacher’s Edition
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September 2003
In an account of a study skills program conducted in a
audience and to reflect on the sort of identity they want
British university, Clark discusses the social aspects of
to establish for themselves based on both writers’ prac-
the principles shaping academic writing and how to
tice and readers’ expectations.
give students chances to examine these principles criti-
Critical language awareness in the teaching of writ-
cally. She elaborates on the notion of an academic dis-
ing can also be applied to the concept of audience.
course community and focuses on an empowerment
Once decisions about needs to communicate with real
approach to help students make informed decisions
people are made, learners can decide whether or not
about their own way of writing. According to her,
they want to or should conform to particular sociolin-
empowerment is “the process by which students
guistic conventions (Clark, Ivanic and Simpson, Janks
become aware of what the conventions are, where they
and Ivanic, quoted in Fairclough, p. 17). In teaching writ-
come from, what their likely effects are and how they
ing, a sense of audience should be an important element
feel about them” (p. 118). Based on knowledge achieved
to be integrated into task design. However, the critical
through critical awareness, students can act by creative-
language awareness approach reveals that rather than
ly reflecting on discourse norms and finding alternatives
the teacher, it is the learners who play the primary role
to the dominant conventions in association with their
in choosing, according to their real desires and needs,
own experiences and values.
the audience and thus the topic or purpose for writing.
Vietnamese EFL students, for example, often rely on
the linear outline often found in academic writing in
Implications for Teaching
English, but they also integrate their personal experi-
Academic Writing in Vietnam
ences into the conclusion. This practice is shaped by
Vietnamese cultural rhetoric, and in doing so we believe
Background
that our writing can leave a deeper impression in
readers’ minds.
To date, teaching writing in Vietnam has focused
Liddicoat takes the position that awareness of the
explicitly on the forms of the writing genres our stu-
discourse of a particular writing genre leads to insight
dents are supposed to master. Most of the course books
into the rhetorical norms of a culture or a discourse
we use are Western-produced and Western-based.
community and thus gives the power to determine one’s
Therefore, the written texts our students use to learn
own style based on the knowledge of expectations from
writing are highly culturally determined by the contexts
both the first and the target culture (p. 21). He further
from which they emerge. As a result, one of the goals in
emphasizes the significance of valuing the cultural prac-
learning writing is for students to make their writing as
tices reflected in the writing tasks of the learners.
native-like as possible by conforming to the conventions
Another aspect of critical language awareness as
of the written discourse of the target language.
applied to teaching writing is explored by Ivanic and
However, this does not provide a guarantee that in doing
Simpson, who associate students’ language conscious-
so, they can communicate effectively.
ness with a process of self-representation in academic
writing. They argue that the notion to “write with my
Nurturing Cultural Identity
own voice” is a matter of choosing one among a range of
alternatives which seem consistent with one’s own iden-
The idea of critically examining the practices of aca-
tity. According to Liddicoat, production identifies with
demic writing is not very common in the Vietnamese
the process of expressing a writer’s own personality and
EFL classroom setting. To some extent, however, this is
values in the text (p. 20). This assumption supports the
in line with the Vietnamese cultural value favoring
view that the critical language approach is partly related
expressivity in terms of both flow of ideas and poetic or
to the teacher’s job to build up student autonomy and
beautiful language use. Many of my students enjoy
responsibility. It also challenges the traditional approach
exploring their flow of thoughts expressively, employing
in the sense that classroom practice is centered on nego-
a great deal of metaphor and using concrete images to
tiating ways for students to identify themselves as writ-
describe abstract ideas. This emerges from a Vietnamese
ers (Ivanic and Simpson, p. 170). Employing the first-
cultural outlook, from which my students have learned
person “I,” in their opinion, makes writing more explicit
principles of expression for understanding and describ-
and helps “bring the ideas out.” Writers are also moti-
ing the world. This provides them with a framework for
vated to put themselves in the position of the readers or
Teacher’s Edition
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September 2003
conveying meaning in their written discourse. Thus,
those, relevant to language learners’ potential uses, from
along with familiarizing students with conventional
other countries where English is used as an internation-
principles of academic writing in the target language,
al language. Teachers might need to introduce samples
teachers should appreciate and enable students to
of writing not only from native English-speaking cul-
combine these with the Vietnamese cultural value of
tures but also from various English-using cultures for stu-
writing expressively.
dents’ perusal. This is to ensure that EFL learners can use
Furthermore, other ways of thinking and writing
appropriate English in conventional ways in many situa-
that are shaped by Vietnamese social norms and cultural
tions; otherwise, they will be disadvantaged or even
values and are not in conflict with those of the target
excluded from the expectations of the target discourse.
language should be nurtured in academic writing.
I am in favor of Fairclough’s view that critical lan-
This is a pathway to empower our students by helping
guage awareness can provide students with “the capa-
them retain their cultural identity or Vietnamese flavor
bilities and understanding which are preconditions for
in writing, rather than simply telling them to conform
meaningful choice and effective citizenship in the
to conventions.
domain of language” rather than engaging them in oppo-
Discourse types modify writers’ identities through
sitional practice (p. 54). On the other hand, teaching
their subconscious choices to participate in them
writing in such a way that students are forced to accom-
(Ivanic, p. 20). The presence of a new identity, which is
modate to the rhetorical practices of the target culture
formed by the language of communication in general or
and abandon those of the first culture is a kind of lin-
a discourse type in particular, leads to a process in
guistic imperialism (Phillipson, and Muhlhaster, cited in
which personal identity and cultural identity are
Liddicoat, p. 20). From either perspective, it is reason-
“framed, modified, confirmed, challenged and negotiat-
able that a writer’s personal or cultural expression of
ed” (Collier and Thoma, p. 112, cited in Cortazzi and Jin,
voice and values should be warmly embraced in a com-
p. 266). By discussing ways to engage in the target dis-
prehensive writing course.
To advocate this, in
course but at the same time to cherish our identity, we
Liddicoat’s view, is to advocate writing between two cul-
make the act of writing more worthwhile and meaning-
tures, or a type of writing which seeks to integrate the
ful to our students. Aspects of cultural identity revealed
first language culture with the second language culture
in traditional writing styles, however, can only be effec-
to produce written works which are to some extent
tively reflected upon and promoted in real classrooms
satisfying to non-native speakers, native speakers,
when assessment criteria are modified and refined in
examiners, and editors.
line with teachers’ beliefs and practices.
Methods for Developing Critical
Awareness of the Target Discourse
Awareness in Writing Classes
Students should be taught how to seek a compro-
Topic Choice
mise between their own discourse, which is greatly
shaped by interests, personal identity, social norms, and
One of the ways teachers can help to develop stu-
cultural values, and the discourse of the target commu-
dents’ critical language awareness in writing is to give
nity. It is important to help students see how power and
them opportunities to choose materials or topics. This
attitudes influence choices in language and how in
can be considered a step towards boosting their auton-
response they can change their own use of language.
omy. In doing so, they are empowered to play the role
Students should be motivated to look beyond forms and
of active participants rather than passive recipients of
functions to underlying attitudes and power relations
knowledge (Benesch). In my opinion, once students are
that determine language conventions. Making students
engaged in such a decision-making process, they will
aware of the constraints and risks if they do not conform
feel more responsible for their own learning. That is,
to conventional practices is an indispensable task
they will find their own voice which is consistent with
for teachers.
their own needs in learning writing. A “sense of self”
An awareness of norms and values as well as target
along with a sense of responsibility or autonomy will in
culture expectations is always significant. That is, the
turn become an additional source of motivation for
content of an EFL writing syllabus should touch on con-
students to learn writing.
ventions from English-speaking countries, as well as
Teacher’s Edition
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September 2003
Furthermore, students will feel motivated to learn if
In Vietnamese contexts, engaging students in topic
they are aware that they are learning what they want to
choice for academic writing is a step away from a tradi-
learn. My experiences in this area have confirmed for
tional teacher-centered pedagogy to a learner-centered
me that teachers do not always get it right about what
one. Traditionally, students expect a teacher to tell them
topics appeal to students. Given autonomy and choices,
how to learn best, what to learn, and why to learn, since
they can share with others their learning experiences
teachers are more experienced and “experts” in the
and explore ways that work well for them based on a
field; this belief is an inheritance of Confucianism, a
variety of strategies and techniques. At the same time,
Chinese set of beliefs that have shaped Vietnamese soci-
they can express their wish to learn writing in certain
ety for ages. Involving students in decisions about learn-
ways and in certain genres in which they are interested
ing is one way we can empower our students in such a
or which they think will be useful in their future jobs. In
context. This approach also offers teachers insights into
class, students can be encouraged to write freely to
students’ needs, preferences, and learning styles.
express their preferences in learning writing, keep jour-
nals, or fill out self-rating questionnaires in which they
Writing Workshops
are asked to evaluate the ways they learn best. Based on
this and other kinds of feedback, teachers may choose
Writing classes in the form of workshops are anoth-
materials or design tasks based on the interests of
er alternative for us to reshape our students’ practice
students in a class.
and roles in learning writing. An attempt could be made
Benesch likewise believes that flexibility in topic
by teachers to run writing workshops in the areas of get-
selection should be offered (p. 84). In Vietnamese set-
ting started, conferencing and sharing, and revising
tings, options which he discusses—including teacher
(Peyton, Jones, Vincent, and Greenblatt, p. 476).
choice, student choice, and whole class choice in differ-
Different groups of students could choose topics based
ent combinations—deserve a place in the writing syl-
on common needs or interests. Teachers might also
labus. Students’ interests and needs as well as concerns
encourage them to read alone, in pairs, or in groups, and
about the content of the class should be taken into
then to write in response to their reading. After discus-
account.
Collaborative decision-making among class
sion, students could be encouraged to brainstorm on the
members about what to study should also be nurtured,
topic and make an outline. In a writing workshop, it is
as this helps promote a greater sense of mutual respon-
worthwhile to allow them time to “think out loud and to
sibility or sense of community, which is a deeply rooted
talk through ideas, stories and feelings before and during
Vietnamese cultural value. Along with individual and
drafting,” as asserted by Peyton, Jones, Vincent, and
whole class choices, teachers should be the ones who
Greenblatt (p. 477). Also, teachers need to provide an
consider all alternatives and come up with informed
overall schema for each genre of writing in terms of
decisions about topic selection, which is looked at not
knowledge, experiences, vocabulary, and structures for
only from her own institutional, social, and pedagogical
students to draw on during the writing process.
perspectives, but also from learners’ perspectives.
After all this, individual students can work on their
It is also an important concern for teachers to make
own paragraph or essay. Flexibility should be allowed
instructions explicit and purpose-oriented. “Choose a
for individuals to draw creatively on their own writing
topic you like and write an essay about it” is too gener-
style, knowledge, and experience.
During drafting,
al. Teachers may provide questions as guidelines for stu-
teachers may conference with individual students or
dents to use in developing their ideas, or they may nar-
groups for better clarity or improvement of mechanical
row the range of topic choices—for example, “Find a
or stylistic conventions. Then students may exchange
social event appealing to you, describe it, and explain
their writing for peer feedback or group response, and
why you prefer it to others.”
revise their drafts under the teacher’s guidance. Due to
Along with familiarizing students with conventional principles of
academic writing...teachers should appreciate and enable students to
combine these with the Vietnamese cultural value of writing expressively.
Teacher’s Edition
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September 2003
time constraints, a writing workshop might not be held
personal interests is to encourage free writing. Have stu-
regularly, but it can certainly be an alternative to a nor-
dents write freely to express something that matters to
mal writing lesson or done as an extracurricular activity.
them. While the linguistic conventions on which our
A workshop should offer students a chance not only
students draw position them in a particular way (Ivanic,
to become familiar with various idea generation and
p. 11), I believe that the activity of free writing leaves
organization techniques, but more importantly, to
room for their self-representation as well. Integrating
explore new ways of thinking and writing and establish
personal experience into free writing contributes to
a living connection with their own experience. In addi-
bringing academic tasks closer to their lives, making
tion, the conferencing part of the workshop can take an
them feel valued and their writing more meaningful.
in-depth look at culturally-influenced ways of writing,
Free writing can be promoted in Vietnamese universities
identify alternatives to conventions, and examine the
in the form of diaries or reflective journals based on a
benefits and constraints in using or adapting these in
short reading or a topic selected by a group of students
our own contexts. The sorts of critical language experi-
or the whole class. Many of my students enjoy free writ-
ences gained in a workshop through knowledge
ing since they feel it helps them explore ideas and write
exchange and social interaction enable learners to dis-
more easily and smoothly.
cover their own writing voice, thereby molding the
In addition, teachers can help students see the ben-
emergence of more independent and confident writers
efits of free writing for the development of their lan-
who are able to evolve their own writing styles.
guage skills as well as their personal growth. In this
Working with one another in a writing workshop
view, writing is a process and a tool for reflecting,
also assists students in achieving “a better grasp of the
expressing, and learning rather than merely a product or
perspective of their audience” (Ritchie, p. 130) and thus
demonstration of knowledge (Crème, p. 99). Free writ-
to learn more about the varied viewpoints a writer may
ing also helps build students’ confidence in reflecting on
choose to address. In light of critical language aware-
their writing ability and exploring their own voice
ness in teaching writing as discussed by Clark, and
embedded in their own ideas, rather than simply restat-
Ivanic and Simpson, a sense of audience decided by
ing what someone else has said in sample writings.
learners themselves is an important element, and a writ-
In short, critical language awareness as seen in free
ing workshop can provide multiple audience responses
writing welcomes all aspects of personal experience
among which to choose. Based on peer responses and
into the learning process. Again, our students will
an examination of whether the purposes for a particular
be empowered.
writing are fulfilled, teachers may guide students to
Free writing should be seen as one possibility for
rethink and revise their ideas. Critical awareness that
change in the current syllabus rather than as a dominant
gets students into the habit of taking readers into
form of writing for Vietnamese tertiary English students.
account will be worthwhile for students in their future
Various forms of writing need to be introduced to stu-
jobs. That is, it helps students consciously understand
dents since this not only expands the range of “discour-
that there are issues of background knowledge, expecta-
sal selves” that students can assume (Crème, p. 103), but
tions, impressions, considerate use of language, and type
more importantly contributes to helping our students be
of discourse to be considered when writing to a partic-
better prepared to enter the workplace.
ular audience or in a particular social context.
Furthermore, Ritchie concludes that voices representing
The Use of “I”
both conflicting and complementary values in the social
context of a writing workshop can lead to student effort
to reshape their thoughts, and this process offers rich
Critical language awareness can also be promoted
opportunities for skill development, growth, and change
by encouraging our students to use “I” in academic writ-
(p. 130). In a sense, writing workshops can involve our
ing. Putting “I,” as suggested by Ivanic (p. 145), is a way
students in an empowerment process embedded in
to inspire students to write. The first-person voice goes
their collaborative strength.
hand-in-hand with a burning desire to convey a message
and a tool for questioning themselves about their writ-
Free Writing
ing and ideas. Clark raises the point that encouraging
students to employ “I” and other personal expressions
Another way to help students seek a compromise
can help them take responsibility for their ideas (p. 136).
between a commitment to conventions and their
Since it is widely agreed by researchers that academic
Teacher’s Edition
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September 2003
writing is neither impersonal nor objective (Ivanic;
between cultures, in which they are enabled to write
Crème, et al.), using “I” is a step to highlighting students’
effectively, neither being excluded by expectations of
own voices in their writing. Gee points out that our per-
the target discourse nor being forced to abandon the
sonal ways of employing words or using language are
rhetorical practices of the first language and culture.
inseparable not only from our cultural values and social
The pedagogical implications of critical language aware-
norms and identity, but also from our personal identity
ness upon Vietnamese contexts are a rich field for future
or sense of self (p. 66). It is my belief that employing “I”
research.
in academic writing is a way to realize both transaction-
Critical language awareness can help us examine
al and interactional purposes in written language. “I” sig-
our teaching practices and make informed decisions
nifies that along with a transactional aim of transferring
about how to go about teaching academic writing based
a view or discussing subject matter, an interactional aim
not only on our knowledge of methods and forms of dis-
is also valued. That is, the “I” in a written text facilitates
course, but also on our interpretation of our students’
interaction between a writer and readers because the
perceived, potential, and unrecognized needs.
presence of the writer is more explicit to the readers.
I would like to thank Rosemary Viete and the editor
A Sense of Authorship
of Teacher’s Edition for their valuable comments on
earlier drafts of this article.
Since a sense of authorship is interwoven with a
sense of purpose, enabling students to explore powerful
References
reasons for conveying their viewpoints should be an
Benesch, S. Critical English for Academic Purposes:
important element in our approach to teaching writing.
Theory, Politics and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001.
In this view, warm-up or pre-writing activities aiming at
driving students to a particular purpose for their writing
Brown, H.D. Teaching By Principles: An Interactive
or making them feel a real need to write is a highly valid
Approach to Language Pedagogy.
Prentice Hall
concern. According to Ivanic, authorship is an aspect of
Regents, 1995.
voice (p. 341). She asserts that writing pedagogy needs
Clark, R.
“Principles and Practice of CLA in the
to look at the fact that writing is truly worthwhile when
Classroom.” In Critical Language Awareness. Ed. N.
a writer expresses something that matters to herself.
Fairclough. Longman, 1992.
Empowering students with a sense of authorship is part
of showing students that they have the right to make
Cortazzi, M., and L. Jin. “Cultural Mirrors: Materials and
decisions about ideas and forms of expression rather
Methods in EFL Classrooms.” In Culture in Language
than simply being required to conform to conventions
Teaching and Learning.
Ed. E. Hinkel. Cambridge
and imitate examples. Examples are just possible ways
University Press, 1999.
to experience a topic or type of discourse—alternatives
Crème, P. “The ‘Personal’ in University Writing: Uses of
are always within their power.
Reflective Learning Journals.” In Student Writing in
Higher Education. Ed. M.R. Lea and B. Stierer. The
Conclusion
Society for Research Into Higher Education and Open
University Press, 2000.
To sum up, learning by rote and accommodating to
the forms and conventions of a target discourse cannot
Fairclough, N. Criical Language Awareness. Longman,
ensure that our students learn to write successfully. One
1992.
of our major concerns as writing teachers should be
Gee, J.P. Social Linguistics and Literacies: Ideology in
how to help our students find a safe position in
Discourse. Taylor and Francis Ltd., 1996.
Writing pedagogy needs to look at the fact that writing is truly
worthwhile when a writer expresses something that matters to herself.
Teacher’s Edition
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September 2003
Ivanic, R.
Writing and Identity: The Discoursal
N. Fairclough. Longman, 1992.
Construction of Identity in Academic Writing. John
Peyton, J.K., C. Jones, A. Vincent, and L. Greenblatt.
Benjamins, 1997.
“Implementing Writing Workshops with ESOL Students:
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Visions and Realities.” TESOL Quarterly 28 (3),Autumn
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Ritchie, J.S. “Beginning Writers: Diverse Voices and
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Liddicoat, A.
“Communicating Within Cultures,
OOOOO
Communicating Across Cultures, Communicating
Tran Thi Ly (M.Ed.,TESOL, Monash University) has taught
Between Cultures.”
In Academic Communication
since 1997 at the Hue University of Sciences. She con-
Across Disciplines and Cultures. Ed. Z. Golebiowski and
tributed the article, “Using Pair and Group Work in
H. Borland. Victoria University of Technology, 1997.
Teaching Writing,” to Teacher’s Edition 5, March 2001.
Mckenzie, M. “‘What I’ve Always Known But Never Been
Her academic interests include writing across cultures,
Told’:
Euphemisms,
School Discourse and
discourse analysis, and literature.
Empowerment.” In Critical Language Awareness. Ed.
OOOOO
With a partner, create
and practice a simple
Spot
dialogue in which you
Photo
ask this motorcycle taxi
driver to take you some-
where.
For more of a
challenge, make it one
Give this
in which you must give
photo and
him directions to your
exercise
destination.
suggestions
to students
In a group, imagine a
desiring extra
typical day in the life of
practice,
the man in the picture,
use it in
then tell it to the class.
tutoring
situations,
Do you think being a
or collect it
“xe om” or taxi driver
and other
is a good job? Take one
photos for
side of the question, and
classroom
debate with a partner
use.
who takes the opposite
point of view.
Photo by Brad Baurain
Teacher’s Edition
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September 2003
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