Transfer Strategies of Vietnamese
Learners
Vo Thi Thanh Diep, M.A.
English teachers should be aware of uniquely Vietnamese patterns
of expression.
As in linguistics, in which there has been a shift away
used in affirmative answers only, indicating agreement,
from a focus on form, language teaching methodology
consent, or affirmation. Many Vietnamese learners real-
has begun to concentrate more on functional communi-
ize there must be consistency between the two parts of
cation (with an emphasis on communicative compe-
short answers to negative questions—for example,“No,
tence) rather than on linguistic competence. The ulti-
I didn’t.” However, when they are engaged in real com-
mate aim of teaching and learning language is not the
munication, an incorrect spontaneous response is one
acquisition of words or sentence patterns, but the
of the inevitable mistakes which is likely to be made as
enabling of the learner. He or she must gain the ability
a consequence of mother-tongue interference. The
to communicate.
equivalent Vietnamese speech acts—“DÕ, [em]
This article deals with transfer strategies at the
speech-act level which are very common among
không” or “DÕ, [em] có”—do not translate directly
Vietnamese learners of English. Much has been written
into correct English.
on transfer strategies, however, little has been written
Furthermore, these mother-tongue-like patterns in
about specific transfer strategies of Vietnamese learn-
production may be attributed to performance habits.
ers. Sometimes transfer strategies work out very effec-
That is, they can be explained as a sign of immature pro-
tively, but sometimes they do not. Common patterns in
cessing mechanisms or as a lack of automatic produc-
Vietnamese learners’ transfer strategies result, of course,
tion, rather than as a lack of grammar knowledge.
from specific cultural and traditional characteristics.
Learners may already have an essential underlying grasp
According to Rebecca Oxford, a specialist in learn-
of English grammar, but not the ability to use that
ing strategies: “Directly applying knowledge of words,
knowledge unconsciously, without hesitation. They
concepts, or structures from one language to another in
have not achieved automatic control over specific struc-
order to understand or produce an expression in the
tures. It is the lack of such spontaneity or deeper skills
new language is called ‘transfer’” (p. 47).
that leads learners to out-of-place responses and inap-
propriate speech acts. The specific action consists of
A Structural Transfer Strategy
directly transferring habits or patterns of speech from
Vietnamese to English. This “instant lapse” or “forget-
The first strategy can be easily seen in Vietnamese
ting” in order to perform or produce an utterance in a
learners’ responses to negative questions, for example,
learner’s target language may be called a “transfer strat-
“Don’t you go…?”.
In response to such questions,
egy in performance.”
Vietnamese learners usually nod their heads or say “Yes,
Social Transfer Strategies
I don’t.” In spoken Vietnamese,“dÕ” or “vâng,” in addi-
tion to the function of an honorific, is marked for the
Greetings
agreement of the whole sense of an utterance—either
affirmative or negative. They indicate that the listener is
The examples cited next are deviations of a different
in agreement with the speaker’s question.
Native
nature. They occur in Vietnamese learners’ speech acts
English speakers may become annoyed or puzzled at
due to unawareness of different social conventions. For
this confusing rhetoric of Vietnamese people and regard
it as unnecessary beating about the bush. In English,
example, in Vietnamese, the interrogative “[Anh] ði
“yes” (except with a rising tune as an interrogative) is
ðâu ðó?” (“Where are you going?”) can function as a
Teacher’s Edition
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October 1999
greeting , not merely a question. The utterance is high-
statement. Each of the acknowledgements serves a dif-
ly conventionalized in Vietnamese communities, where
ferent function in order to show appreciation for the
Vietnamese people used to live in villages surrounded
speaker's compliment.
by green bamboo hedges. The bamboo hedges, rice
Vietnamese learners’ responses to such compli-
paddy fields, and age-old traditions made it hard for the
ments in English are sometimes quite different. Instead
villagers to leave their hometowns and simple and
of an acknowledgement of the compliment, a negative
peaceful lives. This situation may, to some extent, have
response is rather common. The recipient usually tends
made, affected, or resulted in such culturally-colored
to reject, scale down, deliberately underplay or even
greetings.
downplay negatively what the complimenter says. To
The interpersonal relationships in such greetings
minimize or refuse praise is considered customary or
are expressed through Vietnamese informally—by kin-
polite in Vietnam and other Asian cultures. This can be
seen in the play “We and I” by the late playwright Luu
ship personal pronouns such as “Anh,”“Ch¸,”“Em,”“Cô,”
Quang Vu:
“Bác,”“Chú,” etc., whereas in English the personal pro-
noun “you” has no such implications. Additionally, the
Lê S½n: ...Phäi nói cô Ngà khéo tay và có khiªu
openness of dwellings, time orientation, and job pres-
sure shape different cultural concepts in English greet-
kÛ thu§t. (I must say that Ngà has golden hands and
ings. Therefore,Vietnamese learners' deviant speech-act
aptitudes.)
forms “Where are you going?” or “What are you doing?”
Ngà: ...Tôi chï là h÷c trò cüa anh thôi. (I am
are not accepted as polite greetings in English-speaking
just your student.)
communities. On being asked so, the person greeted
feels that the other person is rather nosy; in fact, though,
Hß½ng: Trông anh khác xßa nhi«u.
the Vietnamese person is probably not even interested
(You look
in what the other person is doing. Similarly, in English
quite different from before.)
the common daily greetings “Hi,” “Hello,” “Good morn-
Hoàng Vi®t: Hß½ng thì lÕi chÆng khác gì...Cô
ing,” or “Good day” sometimes do not convey a genuine
trë mãi. (You are not different at all. You are as young
interest in the other person’s affairs and sometimes
as ever!)
sounds boring or monotonous to foreign language learn-
ers. The lack of knowledge concerning different social
Hß½ng: Không, em già ði ð¤y chÑ. (No, I’m get-
conventions of the two languages brings about such out-
ting old!)
of-place statements.
Telephone Skills
Compliments
Another transfer strategy employed by Vietnamese
Such mismatches can also be seen very often in pair-
learners is in telephone etiquette. The transfer can be
ing compliments.
In real-life communication, many
explained in terms of the different telephone etiquettes
kinds of utterances appear to require responses of very
of Vietnamese and English cultures. The large difference
specific types and occur only in pairs. For instance, a
between English and Vietnamese telephone etiquettes
greeting usually calls for a greeting in exchange, a ques-
causes Vietnamese learners to fall back on their mother
tion for an answer, an answer for acceptance or non-
tongue even though they are using the target language.
acceptance, a complaint for denial or apology, an accu-
English speakers usually get a phone call started
sation for confession or denial, or an invitation for an
with phrases such as:
•
acceptance or a refusal. The sequence of two related
“Hello. General Electric Company [or phone number,
utterances by two different speakers is called an “adja-
or name].”
•
cency pair.” The second utterance in such an adjacency
“This is Kathy.”
•
pair must always be a response to the first, either explic-
“Good morning. Can I help you?”
•
itly or implicitly.
“Jack speaking.”
•
For instance, in English a compliment usually calls
“It’s Peter.”
•
for some indication of appreciation, therefore, it goes in
Who’s calling?” or “May I have your name, please?”
pair with an acknowledgement such as “Thank you,”“It's
And they may end telephone conversations with
not bad,” “I thought you might like it,” or some similar
phrases such as:
Teacher’s Edition
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October 1999
•“Nice talking to you.”
•
transfer irrelevant knowledge across languages.”
“Good-bye” or “Bye.”
•“Look forward to hearing from you again soon.”
•
Conclusion
“Good. We’ll be in touch. Bye.”
•“See you then. Bye.”
•
In summary, Vietnamese learners take some respon-
“Good-bye now.”
sibility in their learning success in such a way that they
Meanwhile, in Vietnamese the receiver may address
often instinctively employ transfer strategies to cope
the caller as follows:
•
with English-speaking situations. The above examples
“Alô!” (“Hello!” [French influence])
are given in the hope that a thorough study of transfer
•
strategies employed by Vietnamese learners will be very
“Alô! Ai ðó / ai ðây?” (“Hello! Who’s that?”)
•
useful. An awareness of such strategies can give a better
“(DÕ) Alô! Xin l²i, xin cho biªt ai · ð¥u dây?”
orientation to Vietnamese learners who want to work
(“Hello! Excuse me. Please let me know who’s call-
out their own ways to success in studying English as
ing?”)
•
well as assist foreign teachers who are working with
“Alô! Tôi nghe ðây. Cho tôi höi ai ðang g÷i
Vietnamese learners.
ð¤y?” (“Hello! I’m listening. Could I ask who’s calling
Reference
on the other end?”)
•“Alô! Nhân ðây.” (“Hello! This is Nhân.”/ “Nhân Oxford, Rebecca L. Language Learning Strategies:
here.”)
What Every Teacher Should Know. 1990.
And common Vietnamese phrases for ending a
phone call include:
OOOOO
•
Vo Thi Thanh Diep (M.A., Applied Linguistics &
“Thôi ng×ng nghe.” (“Well, please stop here then.”)
•
Teaching English, Vietnam National University) was
“Thôi nghen.” (“I stop here then.”)
•
Vice-Dean of the Foreign Languages Department at Qui
“Chào nhen.” (“Good-bye then.”)
Nhon Teachers’ College. She taught methodology and
•
supervised practice teaching by senior English majors,
“Chào, [ch¸].” (“Good-bye [you].”)
and oversaw the university’s in-service English training
Vietnamese beginners who are interested in English
program. This article is drawn from her 1997 M.A. the-
usually translate directly from mother-tongue speech-
sis, “Learning Strategies of Vietnamese Learners at the
acts. To get a phone call to flow smoothly when they
Speech-Act Level.” On a Fulbright Scholarship, she is
engage in either classroom practice or real-life commu-
now studying educational administration at Columbia
nication, they often transfer the Vietnamese speech-act
University in New York City.
structures into English:
•
OOOOO
“Hello! Who’s that?”
•“Hello! I’m listening here.”
•“Hello! Nhan here.”
•“Stop then!”
•
Looking for a
“Bye then.”
brainstorm starter or
By comparison with English, these phrases trans-
bite-sized lesson idea?
ferred from Vietnamese often seem bolder, more direct,
or less courteous.
Look for this icon throughout
In commenting on social transfer strategies, Oxford
Teacher’s Edition:
observes (p. 85): “Transferring can involve applying lin-
guistic knowledge from the learner’s own language to
the new language, linguistic knowledge from one aspect
of the new language to another aspect of the new lan-
guage, or conceptual knowledge from one field to anoth-
er. Transfer works well as long as the language elements
“Ideas on the Go”
or concepts are directly parallel, but most of the time
might be your answer!
they are not! It can lead to inaccuracy if the learners
Teacher’s Edition
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October 1999
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