3.1 Introduction

This chapter draws together data on the efficiency of the TTCs. A review of documentation available revealed a marked lack of information on aspects of college efficiency. What information has been found, however, is organised here under the headings of TTC enrolment, selection procedure, tutor qualification, and the financing of teacher education. Where data useful to the MUSTER project were unavailable these are highlighted as a potential sub-study investigations.

3.2 Overview of the Teacher Training Colleges

At present there is only one mode of initial teacher training for basic education in Ghana: the three-year post-secondary teacher training programme. This programme was introduced in 1978 and is offered by the 38 TTCs. Of the 38 colleges, seven train female teachers only, one is an all-male technical teacher training college, and the remaining 30 are co-educational. With the exception of the TTC in Accra, all others are residential. All 38 colleges prepare teachers for both primary and JSS levels, but at the time of writing plans to introduce college specialisation are being discussed by the TED.

3.3 Enrolments in the Teacher Training Colleges

The Director of Finance and Administration (MOE) in consultation with the TED decides the number of new trainees admitted each year. The number of new trainees is based on a quota given by the MOE. This changes each year and does not appear to be linked to analysis of teacher demand. TTC enrolments in total, and by sex, for the academic years 1992/93 to 1997/98, are shown in Table 3.1. Since 1993, the number of trainees enrolled has increased by 51 per cent. In general, the population of training college students has been increasing over the years except for a slight fall in 1993/94. Female enrolment as a percentage of total enrolment has also increased from 33 to 38 percent between 1995 and 1998.

Table 3.1: Total Enrolment in Teacher Training Colleges, 1992-1997

year	1992/93	1993/94	1994/95	1995/96	1996/97	1997/98
male	-	-	-	12,316	12,935	12,576
female	-	-	-	6,110	6,722	7,823
total	13,561	13,457	16,447	18,426	19,657	20,399

Source: Teacher Education Division/GES Statistics 1998

Table 3.2 shows enrolment at all 38 TTCs for the academic year 1996/97. The colleges are dispersed among all ten of Ghana’s administrative regions and vary in size in terms of trainee enrolment. In 1996, the smallest was Mampong Technical TTC with 241 trainees; the largest Foso with 914. Average enrolment in 1996/97 was 510.

Table 3.2: Teacher Training Enrolment by College, 1996/97¹³

¹³ The total enrolment figure differs from that in the previous in inconsistent with that given in the previous table. It is possible that they were collected by different departments at different times during the academic year or that one is a revised set of figures in the light of more accurate data. It is not clear which set of statistics is the more accurate.

	TTC	Region	Male	Female	Total
1.	Abetefi	Eastern	274	83	357
2.	Accra	Gt. Accra	317	124	441
3.	Ada	Gt. Accra	306	106	412
4.	Agogo	Ashanti	0	327	327
5.	Akatsi	Volta	456	117	573
6.	Akrokerri	Ashanti	451	169	620
7.	Atebubu	B. Ahafo	341	71	412
8.	Bagabaga	Northern	488	43	531
9.	Bekekum	B. Ahafo	368	81	449
10.	Dambai	Volta	382	70	452
11.	Enchi	B. Ahafo	296	58	354
12.	EP, Amedzofe	Volta	352	86	438
13.	EP, Bimbilla	Northern	483	101	584
14.	Foso	Central	696	218	914
15.	Gbewaa	Upper East	396	55	451
16.	Holy Child	Western	0	377	377
17.	Jasikan	Volta	429	99	528
18.	Kibi	Eastern	375	193	568
19.	Komenda	Central	440	152	592
20.	Mampong	Ashanti	241	0	241
21.	Mount Mary	Eastern	322	139	461
22.	N.J. Ahmadiyya	Upper West	289	70	359
23.	Ofinso	Ashanti	476	149	625
24.	Ola	Central	0	773	773
25.	Peki	Volta	308	111	419
26.	PTC	Eastern	611	187	798
27.	PWTC	Eastern	0	406	406
28.	SDA, Korofidua	Eastern	513	195	708
29.	St Francis	Volta	351	103	454
30.	St John Bosco’s	Upper East	495	113	608
31.	St Joseph’s	B. Ahafo	546	166	712
32.	St Louis	Ashanti	0	409	409
33.	St Monica’s	Ashanti	0	445	445
34.	St Teresa’s	Volta	0	311	311
35.	Tamale	Norhern	451	140	591
36.	Tumu	Upper West	301	31	332
37.	Wesley College	Ashanti	483	184	667
38.	Wiawso	Western	515	155	670
	Total		12,752	6,617	19,369
	% of Total		65.8%	34.2%	100.0%

Source: TED, GES, 1998

3.4 Selection of Teacher Trainees

Admission into training colleges follows a two-stage procedure. First, is the selection of candidates who meet the minimum entry qualification, and secondly selected candidates are invited by each college for an interview and to sit short tests in core subject areas.

Two groups are eligible to apply for entry into the TTCs: ‘O’ level holders, and non ‘O’ level holders who sit the Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE).¹⁴ The minimum entry requirements for non ‘O’ level holders are four credits that have to include English and mathematics, and one other pass; ‘O’ level holders need a minimum of five grade ‘Es’. Candidates are permitted to accumulate the minimum requirements over several years if they do not pass at the first attempt.

¹⁴ The SSCE was introduced in 1994 and ‘O’ levels gradually phased out. 1997/1998 was the last year of ‘O’ level examinations.

Candidates with ‘A’ level qualifications are admitted on their ‘O’ level results. There are, however, very few ‘A’ level applicants. Many colleges tend not to admit ‘A’ level applicants as they often leave for university once they are able to improve their ‘A’ level grades. In general, students looking for post-secondary education have a clear order of preference: universities, polytechnics, other further education institutions, and then TTCs. In the context of the school cohort the TTCs receive students from the lower second and third quartiles of senior secondary completers.

Age is not a determinant of selection, but most applicants are between the ages of 20 and 22. It is rare to take people over the age of 35, because of the perceived problems this might cause in terms of relations with other students and tutors. Only a very small proportion of trainees accepted in 1998/99, less than 2 per cent had taught before.

Applications to TTCs are first filtered through a centralised process conducted by the Teacher Education Directorate (TED) to ensure that all candidates have the minimum qualifications. TED in consultation with the college principals draws up a shortlist of applicants to attend interviews and to sit entry examinations at the colleges. The number attending interviews is roughly double the number of places available. Entry exams are devised and assessed individually by each TTC, and these tests vary greatly among colleges in terms of content, scope, structure and difficulty. Across all TTCs, however, written examinations test applicants’ abilities in English and mathematics. In addition to written examinations, candidates are interviewed by a selection panel, consisting of the principal and senior tutors. The selection criteria at Wesley Teacher Training College, for example, is scored as follows:

· appearance (5 marks);
· good communicating skills (correct use of tenses, expressions) (10 marks);
· interest in teaching/teaching experiences (5 marks);
· knowledge of teacher education trends/structure and trend of basic education (5 marks);
· knowledge of subject matter in elective area (10 marks); and
· grades in elective subjects (15 marks).

The official selection procedure is meritocratic, but in practice the colleges come under pressure from prominent people in the local and educational communities (commonly referred to as “protocol”) to admit candidates other than the best qualified. This practice appears to be widespread throughout the TTCs. From interviews conducted at case study colleges, it appears that the number of applicants admitted through protocol varies between ten percent and one-third.¹⁵

¹⁵ Data from preliminary fieldwork conducted by D. Furlong, October-December, 1998.

The main advantage of the selection procedure identified by college principals is that the minimum entry requirement weeds out those without adequate qualifications, and the interview and examinations identify those who, despite adequate qualifications, are not best suited to the teaching profession. The main disadvantage of the selection procedure is that principals do not have a totally free hand due to protocol.

3.5 Teacher Training College Tutors

The tutors in the colleges have a variety of qualifications ranging from diploma certificates to graduate level degrees. They can be classified into two broad groups: ‘professional’ graduate tutors and ‘non-professional’ graduate tutors. Table 3.3 summarises the distinctions between the two qualification groups of TTC tutors.

Table 3.3: Teacher Training College Tutor Qualifications

Level	Duration of Course	Entry Level	Certificate Awarded
Higher Education (non-graduate level)	3 years	Completion of post-secondary and having taught for 3 years	Diploma Certificate
Higher Education (undergraduate level)	3 years or 2 years for post-Diploma BEd	Teachers holding diploma certificate, or senior secondary leaving certificate*	BEd Degree
Higher Education (postgraduate level)	1 year	Holders of graduate degrees e.g. BA, BSc	Post-graduate Certificate in Education

* The entry level qualification for an undergraduate degree course is in fact a university entrance exam which is set at higher than the post-secondary level.

The total number of teaching staff in the academic year 1994/95 was 846, comprising 69 per cent graduates and 31 per cent non-graduates. Table 3.4 shows the distribution of graduate and non-graduate TTC tutors by subject for the academic year for 1994/95.

Table 3.4: Distribution of Tutor Qualification by Subject, 1994/95

Subject	Non-Graduate Tutors	Graduate Tutors
Mathematics	14	96
Science	24	24
Agricultural Science	15	43
Ghanaian Language	1	57
English	75	82
Cultural Studies	1	6
Physical Education	-	38
Life Skills	1	26
Vocational Skills	8	42
Social Studies	60*	4
Accounting	-	3
Religion	10	7
Music	-	29
Technical Skills	-	25
Art	6	16
Total	269	586

Source: Basic Education Sector Assessment School Review, MOE, 1995a

Note: *Social studies tutors consist of those who have studied geography, economics, political science and history, and not necessarily social studies as a discipline

More recent data on the number and qualifications of TTC tutors in 1997/98 reveal an overall increase to 1,044, and a slight increase in the proportion of non-graduate tutors to 33 per cent. Current policy encourages TTC tutors to gain at least a degree-level qualification, but from the statistics detailed above its impact so far has been limited. This is an issue that needs to be investigated further.

Table 3.5: Teacher Training College Tutors by Qualification and Gender, 1997/98

	No of tutors	Graduate Tutors	Non-graduate Tutors	Male	Female
Total	1044	348	696	821	223

Source: TED/GES Statistics, 1997

The data also show that in 1997 female tutors made up only 21 per cent of the total teaching staff. In the same year, the student population of 20,399, and tutor population of 1,044, resulted in a trainee-tutor ratio of 19.5. As the official trainee-tutor target is 15:1, there is a clear shortage of TTC tutors.

In general, graduate tutors in the TTCs colleges would either have received their training at the University of Cape Coast or the University College of Education of Winneba. Both these universities are teacher training institutions, with the University of Cape Coast mainly training teachers for the second cycle institutions. The University College of Education of Winneba also trains teachers for junior and senior secondary schools. A few of the tutors in the training colleges have no professional teacher training, but hold a bachelor’s degree in science or the arts.

Although most tutors in the training colleges have obtained teaching qualifications at the university level, many have not received training specific to the training of teachers. The training curriculum they would have followed in the universities is not directly related to the curriculum requirements of basic teacher education. Tutors receive on-the-job orientation in terms of the basic teacher education system and its curriculum.

It is necessary to undertake research into what assumptions and perceptions new tutors bring into the training colleges and how these change, if they do, over time. Also, to investigate whether tutors feel their training in the universities, though not specifically geared towards training college teaching, provide them with the necessary knowledge and skills to work in that context, or whether some special emphasis during their training is necessary. For example, students at the University of Cape Coast become quite familiar with the syllabi and curricula of the secondary schools because most of the curriculum studies courses focuses on this context. It could be argued, however, that more attention needs to be given to the curricula of the training colleges at the university level to equip those graduates who will finally work there.

3.6 Financing of Teacher Education

Recurrent expenditure on teacher education is met by the MOE budget. Capital expenditure, however, tends to be funded by donor agencies, and, to a lesser extent, through donations to specific colleges from local community groups and ex-alumni. This section focuses on recurrent expenditure since GOG capital expenditure on teacher education is negligible. In addition, donor assistance was not included in sector budgets until the introduction of new budgeting procedures under the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) in 1999. Recurrent expenditure on teacher education covers the costs of the teacher training colleges and the management of the college system. Recurrent expenditure on teacher education as a percentage of total recurrent expenditure on education was estimated at 6.7 for 1999, a significant increase from its share of 2.7 per cent in 1989, despite decreases in the years 1991, 1996, and 1997 (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Recurrent Expenditure on Teacher Education as a % of Total Recurrent Expenditure on Education, 1989 - 1999

Ministry of Education documentation does not refer to any specific policy to increase the share of education recurrent budget to teacher education. Throughout this period of reform, however, the government has consistently articulated its objective that all teachers should receive preservice training to improve the quality of teaching and learning in classrooms. To achieve this goal, in 1992 the government significantly increased the allowances paid to teacher trainees, and from the mid-1990s onwards the number of teacher trainees increased dramatically.

At the heart of the effectiveness of education reform is the classroom teacher...With the reforms, an increasing number of trained teachers are being placed in the primary and junior secondary schools. The increase in pay for teacher trainees in 1992 has also provided a stronger incentive for candidates to enter the teaching profession, and has resulted in a rare expansion of the teacher training colleges (MOE, 1994:16).

Each year the TTCs prepare budget estimates in relation to annual recurrent expenditure which are submitted to the MOE via the TED. The MOE revises the budgets to keep them within budgetary limits while ensuring that priority items are funded. This process is conducted on an historic basis such that college budgets reflect that of the previous year with an increase to accommodate the effects of inflation. According to TTC accountants, in theory budget estimates are also adjusted to reflect changes in trainee numbers, but they pointed out such adjustments tended to be arbitrary (and often unscientific).

The Ministry of Education makes allocations to teacher education recurrent budget under two headings: GES Headquarters’ Services, and GES Schools and Regional Offices. Recurrent expenditure on teacher education under GES Headquarters’ Services budget heading is used to finance the management of teacher education system at the national level through the TED. Recurrent expenditure on teacher education under the GES Schools and Regional Offices budget heading is used to finance the administration of teacher education at the regional and district levels and cover TTC running costs. Table 3.6 presents data showing how the total recurrent budget to teacher education was allocated between these two budget headings for the years 1993-1997.

Table 3.6: Allocation of Recurrent Expenditure to Teacher Education between GES Budget Headings, 1993-1997

Year	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	Average 1993-97
GES Headquarters	1.9%	1.5%	4.4%	3.0%	5.7%	3.3%
GES Schools and Regional Offices	98.1%	98.5%	95.6%	97.0%	94.3%	96.7%

Source: Finance and Administration, MOE, 1998

Although there has been some fluctuation in the distribution of recurrent expenditure to teacher education between the two budget headings, the proportion allocated to GES Schools and Regional Offices averaged over 96 per cent of the total between 1993 and 1997.

Data showing the disaggregation of the GES Schools and Regional Offices teacher education budget between the administrative functions of the Regional and District Education Offices and expenditure by the TTCs could not be obtained. In the absence of this information it is assumed that the former is negligible relative to the latter, such that data on expenditure under the GES Schools and Regional Offices heading is taken to be comprised almost exclusively of TTC running costs.

Each budget heading is further divided into expenditure items. Item 1 represents expenditure on personal emoluments - salaries of teaching and non-teaching staff, and allowances paid to trainees; item 2 travel and transport; item 3 general expenditure; item 4 maintenance, repairs and renewals; and item 5 supplies and stores. In theory budgetary allocations are fixed and cannot be transferred between items.

The data presented in Table 3.7 below summarise actual recurrent expenditure for the TTC in terms budgets item 1, ‘personal emoluments’, and other expenditure under budget items 2 to 5. The data presented in Table 3.7 indicate that over 90 per cent of the recurrent expenditure allocated to the TTCs is spent on personal emoluments. ‘Other expenditure’ items that enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the colleges comprise less than 10 per cent of the total recurrent budget allocated to TTCs. This undoubtedly has implications for the quality of training since the very low budget allocation means inadequately and poorly maintained infrastructure and insufficient supply of teaching and learning materials.

Table 3.7: Allocation of Recurrent Expenditure to GES Regional Offices and Schools between Personal Emoluments and Other Expenditures, 1993-1997

year	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997
Personal Emoluments	92.9	94.8	91.7	92.7	94.5
Other expenditures	7.1	5.2	8.3	7.3	5.5

Source: Finance and Administration, MOE, 1998.

As described above personal emoluments consist of salary payments to teaching and non-teaching TTC staff, and trainee allowances. Data on recurrent expenditure on teacher trainee allowances are not available at the time of writing, and are difficult to obtain precisely because this category of expenditure does not have a separate budget heading. Penrose (1996:46), however, states that in 1995 the teacher training allowances comprised 80 per cent of the personal emoluments budget item.

A rigorous analysis of the unit costs of teacher education requires disaggregation of the budget items, and, in particular, the personal emoluments budget item. The absence of this data notwithstanding, it is clear that recurrent expenditure on personal emoluments heavily influences the overall and unit cost of teacher education.

The trainee allowances are intended to cover the living costs and purchase of materials necessary for the teacher training course. Trainees receive the allowance on a monthly basis throughout the year, even outside of term-time. Thus, over the three-year course a trainee will receive 36 instalments of the allowance. The trainee allowance increases with each of year of study and is set by the Ministry of Education. The allowance is administered by the TTCs. In theory, the trainee allowance in each year of study should be the same across all colleges. Further research into this matter is required as this has clear implications for efficiency of the system.

The TTCs deduct trainee fees from the allowances directly. Fees are levied for the feeding of trainees during term time, equipment, registration, etc. It is only since the mid-1990s that the charging of trainee fees by TTCs has been officially sanctioned and guidelines produced by the TED in regard to what fees can be charged and how much they should be. Further investigation is required into who sets the fees and how the process is monitored. Moreover, this raises a question about the generosity of the trainee allowances in relation to the fees charged by the TTCs. Again, this warrants further investigation.

3.7 Conclusion

This chapter has identified that the number of new teacher trainees each year does not appear to be linked to the demand for teachers from the schools. There is a need for analysis of teacher supply and demand to inform future teacher trainee enrolment policy. The absence of a clear policy on trainee enrolment notwithstanding, there was a significant increased of over 50 per cent in teacher trainee enrolment between 1993 and 1998. The trainee selection procedure ensures that applicants have the minimum requirements. The college principals, however, are subject to pressure from key figures in local communities and the educational establishment to admit applicants other than the best qualified. This is a clear source of inefficiency that undoubtedly has implications for the trainee pass rate, and the quality of teaching and learning in schools. Most TTC tutors have obtained teaching qualifications at the university level, but many have not received training specific to the training of teachers. Arguably, this has implications for the effectiveness of teacher education, and ultimately teaching and learning outcomes in Ghanaian schools.

Recurrent expenditure on the TTCs reveals that over 90 per cent of the budget is spent on ‘personal emoluments’, that is, the salaries of TTC teaching and non-teaching staff and the allowances paid to the trainees. Only 10 per cent of expenditure is allocated to other items that enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the colleges, such as maintaining the college infrastructure and the supply of teaching and learning materials. It appears, however, that by far the largest item of expenditure under the ‘personal emoluments’ budget line is the trainee allowance, which comprised 80 per cent of the total in 1995. The size of the total expenditure on trainee allowances is such that it heavily influences the overall and unit costs of teacher education, and warrants a more detailed analysis.