1. Introduction
Energy use facilitates all human endeavor, as well as social and
economic progress. Energy is used for heating and cooling, illumination, health,
food, education, industrial production, and transportation. Countries have
considered the production and consumption of sufficient energy to be one of
their main challenges. The magnitude of energy consumed per capita has become
one of the indicators of “modernisation” and progress of a country.
Thus, energy issues and policies have been strongly concerned with increasing
the supply of energy. The strategic and environmental consequences of energy
consumption patterns have been neglected for a long time. The world continues to
seek energy to satisfy its needs without giving due consideration to the social,
environmental, economic and security impacts of its use. It is now clear that
current approaches to energy are unsustainable.
People living in poverty and destitution have benefited very
little from conventional energy policies and their implementation. More than two
billion people lack access to modern energy carriers and electricity. At the
same time, it is widely recognised that without appropriate energy services
there can be no true development.
Development strategies so far have overlooked the fundamental
role of energy in poverty alleviation. The solution is not primarily one of
simply providing enhanced conventional energy supplies. Experience has shown
that such a strategy would be a failure both from the point of view of financial
implications and environmental concerns. A fundamental reorientation is needed
in the approach to energy and energy services.
current approaches to energy are
unsustainable
Energy has been a major public policy issue for a very long
time. In recent history energy gained great attention in the 1970’s as a
result of the 1973 and 1979 oil price shocks. The vulnerability of all economies
to energy price and supply fluctuations became evident to government policy
makers and consumers alike. Oil importing countries confronted serious balance
of payments problems, and in some cases, debt traps. The UN Conference on the
Development and Utilisation of New and Renewable Sources of Energy held in
Nairobi in 1981 stressed the importance of alternative, renewable sources of
energy to offset oil dependence. The hopes raised and plans formulated
floundered, however, with the decline of international oil prices. In parallel,
acidification and global greenhouse gas emissions were taking on new
international significance as were the health concerns related to emissions. No
integrated approach linking energy, environment and development emerged.
During the 1990s, the United Nations convened a series of major
Conferences on global issues including the 1992 Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, the 1993 Conference on Human Rights in
Vienna, the 1994 Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, the Global
Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, the
1995 World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen, the 1995 Fourth World
Conference on Women in Beijing, the 1996 Conference on Human Settlements
(Habitat II) in Istanbul, and the World Summit on Food Security in Rome.
development strategies have overlooked the
fundamental role of energy in poverty alleviation
At each of these Conferences, Member States agreed on
objectives, principles and action programmes. Energy issues have been present at
all of the Conferences. In the Platforms and Programmes for Action emanating
from the Conferences there are texts which clearly discuss the role of energy
(see Box 1). The negative impact on human health and the environment are
explicitly recognised in these documents and statements supporting the
objectives of providing more energy-efficient technologies and utilizing
renewable sources of energy are adopted. In addition, there are also three
Conventions closely linked to energy: the Framework Convention on Climate Change
(FCCC), the 1979 Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution and the
Convention to Combat Desertification.
implementing sustainable energy strategies is one
the most important levers humankind has for creating a sustainable
world
There has not been a focused examination, however, of the role
of energy for overall sustainable socio-economic development and actions called
for concerning sustainable energy have not been integrated into development
strategies.
The message from the Conferences with respect to energy is that
a new approach to energy is required to meet the societal objectives agreed upon
by the community of nations. The impact of poverty on the natural resource base
was recognised at the Earth Summit in Rio. Designing and implementing
environmental protection and resource management measures to take into account
the needs of people living in poverty and vulnerable groups has been repeatedly
highlighted at all major United Nations Conferences since 1992. In spite of
this, however, the necessary changes are not reflected in the overall trends in
energy as observed in the 1990s. Present trends in energy pose serious barriers
to the goals of sustainable development and poverty eradication.
In its resolution 47/190 the United Nations General Assembly
“decides to convene not later than 1997 a special session for the purpose
of an overall review and appraisal of Agenda 21”. The same resolution
“urges organisations and programmes of the United Nations to take the
necessary actions to give effective follow-up to the Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development and Agenda 21”.
This publication was prepared in response to the 1996 General
Assembly resolution 50/113 inviting relevant organisations of the UN to
contribute to the special session. It builds on the work of the Conferences,
drawing new insights from research and development with respect to (i)
the role of energy in sustainable development, (ii) technological options
to supply energy services, and (iii) experiences of energy policies to
achieve objectives in areas linked to energy, such as those contained in
negotiated Conference documents, as relevant in the world of the late 1990s.
Starting from a discussion of the social, environmental,
economic and security issues of today’s world, an attempt is made to
describe the linkages between these issues and energy. This publication advances
an integrated perspective on the linkages between these vital issues and
energy, and its role in achieving the objectives formulated and agreed upon at
the Conferences. Not only is energy one of the determinants of these problems,
but energy can contribute to their alleviation, if not to their solution.
Implementing sustainable energy strategies is one the most important levers
humankind has for creating a sustainable world.
In Chapter 2 linkages between energy and social, environmental,
economic and security issues are reviewed and it is concluded that the present
energy system and trends are not compatible with sustainable development. In
Chapter 3 technology options to bring about a more sustainable energy future are
reviewed and in Chapter 4, their potential impact is analysed. Finally, Chapter
5 addresses the policy issues for bringing about a sustainable energy future.
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Box 1. Energy and the Major UN Conferences
“Agenda 21 constitutes the basic framework and instrument
which will guide the world community on an ongoing basis in its decisions on the
goals, targets, priorities, allocation of responsibilities and resources in
respect of the many environment and development issues which will determine the
future of our planet” according to Maurice Strong,
Agenda 21 programme areas, activities and objectives from the
Rio Conference describe numerous links between sustainable development and
energy issues. These are reflected in the chapters on Promoting Sustainable
Human Settlement Development, Health, Integrating Environment and Development in
Decision-making, Protection of the Atmosphere, Combating Deforestation,
Combating Desertification and Drought, Sustainable Mountain Development, and
Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development. Chapter 34 on
Environmentally Sound Technology, Cooperation and Capacity Building is
particularly relevant to energy and modern clean energy technology.
The Programme of Action adopted at the United Nations Conference
on Population and Development emphasises the need to integrate population
concerns into all aspects of economic and social activity. Chapter 3 addresses
the interrelationships between population, sustained economic growth and
comprehensive sustainable development, particularly for the implementation of
effective population policies and meeting basic human needs. The Cairo
Conference recognised poverty as a major obstacle to solving population
problems.
The Global Conference on Sustainable Development in Small Island
Developing States (SIDS) produced a Plan of Action which deals with energy
resources in Chapter 7. It concludes that SIDS “are currently heavily
dependent on imported petroleum products, largely for transport and electricity
generation, energy often accounting for more than 12 percent of imports. They
are heavily dependent on indigenous biomass fuels for cooking and crop
drying”. The absence of energy alternatives is a clear factor in
unsustainable development patterns in SIDS. As a result it is concluded that
“increased efficiency through appropriate technology and national energy
policies and management measures will reap both financial and environmental
benefits for small island developing states”.
The Social Summit Programme of Action represents a global effort
to address issues related to social development and the negative impacts of
underdevelopment and poverty. Global consensus was reached on the need to create
an enabling economic environment aimed at promoting more equitable access to
sustainable development, and the goal of eradicating poverty. Chapter 2
recognises that improving the availability and accessibility of transportation,
communication, power and energy services at the local and community level is a
way of improving the access to productive resources and infrastructure necessary
for poverty eradication, especially for isolated, remote and marginalised
communities.
The implementation and follow-up of recommendations from Cairo
and Copenhagen related to health, education, safe food, potable water and
sanitation, transportation, employment and poverty eradication, as well as the
needs of special groups such as the aging, handicapped, victims of natural
disasters, children, refugees and displaced, will all require a substantial
increase in energy services.
The Beijing Conference Platform for Action, Objective K
“Women and the environment” refers to women’s numerous roles in
the management and use of natural resources, as providers of sustenance for
their families and communities, as well as women’s needs and requirements
as users, consumers, managers and decision-makers. It stresses the need to
integrate gender concerns and perspectives in all programmes for sustainable
development.
The United Nations Conference on Human Settlements HABITAT II
statement “Sustainable Human Settlements Development in an Urbanizing
World” explicitly deals with sustainable energy use. Chapter 4 states that
the use of energy is essential in urban centers for transportation, industrial
production, household and office activities. “Current dependence in most
urban centers on non-renewable energy sources can lead to climate change, air
pollution and consequent environmental and human health problems, and may
represent a serious threat to sustainable development. Sustainable energy
production and use can be enhanced by encouraging energy efficiency, by such
means as pricing policies, fuel switching, alternative energy, mass transit and
public awareness. Human settlements and energy policies should be actively
coordinated”. The promotion of efficient and sustainable energy use and
actions for Governments, the private sector, non-governmental organisations,
community-based organisations and consumer groups to solve many of the crucial
social and economic requirements of sustainable development are recommended.
The World Summit on Food Security in its Declaration noted that
“unless governments and the international community address the
multifaceted causes underlying food security, the number of hungry and
malnourished people will remain very high in developing countries, particularly
Africa south of the Sahara and sustainable food security will not be
achieved”. The importance of energy in agricultural production, food
preparation and consumption is clear. |
