4. Survey methodology
The approach used in this study is based upon literature reviews,
field surveys, and discussions with concerned individuals and professionals. An
extensive review of the available literature was made by a group of water
experts from the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Thailand. In
addition to the literature available at the AIT library, information was
collected from individuals from within the region. Much of the literature
reviewed did not contain complete or quantitative information on the various
technologies identified, and a significant portion of the available literature
was only available in specific countries or from local sources (e.g.,
unpublished documents, internal papers, etc.), not readily accessible by the
study team. Only references to freely available documents have been included.
Field surveys were carried out in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and
Thailand to supplement the results of the literature survey. The four countries
were identified, during the initial phase of the study, as countries within Asia
that were leading the region in the development and implementation of freshwater
augmentation technologies. Within these four countries, various hydrological
regions were identified that represent typical hydrological and social areas of
Asia, excluding oil-rich west Asia. For example, the rainwater harvesting
technologies used in northern and northeastern Thailand represent technologies
that could be applied in the southern China and Indo-China regions. Similar
climatic conditions also prevail in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Likewise, the
conditions in southern Thailand are similar to those in Malaysia, Myanmar,
Singapore, and parts of Indonesia. Nepalese conditions represent those in the
mountainous areas of the region (e.g., Afghanistan, Bhutan, China (Tibet), and
northern areas of Pakistan and India), while the socio-economic conditions in
Nepal are representative of those in the smaller, poorer countries of the
region, with large rural populations. Conditions in India, a sub-continent with
a wide range of physical, social, cultural and climatic characteristics, have
relevance throughout Asia and outside. Likewise, the physical and tropical
climatic conditions in Bangladesh are representative of many regions in Asia
including Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Local consultants carried
out the field surveys and prepared the case studies in the different countries.
The Danish Hydraulic Institute, Bangladesh Regional Office, in association with
the Water Expert Group of AIT, coordinated the field survey and compiled the
Source Book using information drawn from the country reports. These detailed
country reports are available from the UNEP Water Branch, Nairobi, Kenya,
together with additional information, photographs and illustrations of the
various technologies.
The field surveys were carried out in three stages by
survey/reconnaissance teams within each of the four representative countries in
the region. In the first stage, information on the use, place of use, and
characteristics of use of freshwater augmentation technologies was obtained from
discussions with resource persons belonging to universities, research
organizations, government departments and NGOs. The available literature on
freshwater augmentation technologies was also reviewed. In the second stage,
informed persons from government departments, research organizations,
universities, and international organizations were consulted for more detailed
information on the places and types of use of freshwater augmentation
technologies. Finally, site-specific, detailed information was collected through
a questionnaire survey and focussed group discussions. Questionnaire surveys of
heads of households were conducted in randomly-selected individual households
chosen from the total number of households within a specific settlement or
village. Individuals included in the focussed group discussions included school
teachers; members of the local councils; well known farmers, fishermen and
industrialists; and representatives of farmers organisations, etc., as well as
officials from organizations such as UNICEF and NGOs directly or indirectly
connected with freshwater augmentation technologies.
At the conclusion of the field investigations, a Workshop and
Expert Group meeting was organised in Kathmandu, Nepal, between 5 and 9 November
1995. In addition to the local consultants who conducted the field surveys,
experts and others involved in water resources management and development from
throughout Asia were invited to discuss the findings of the study. The Draft
Source Book was reviewed and new ideas were received in four focal areas;
namely, rainwater harvesting, water conservation and recycling, water quality
improvement, and groundwater recharge. It should be noted that rainwater
harvesting has been defined in its broadest sense as any process whereby (i)
crops or plants are grown by exploiting runoff or directly impounded waters,
(ii) human water needs are satisfied by waters drawn from catchments either
within or outside an individual household, (iii) fish and other aquatic
livestock are cultured using waters drawn from individual catchments or runoff,
and (iv) processing and manufacturing water requirements are satisfied by
utilizing rainwater in whatever form it is available.
4.1 Bangladesh
Field surveys in Bangladesh were carried out by the Intermediate
Technology Development Group, a non-governmental organization (NGO). Survey
teams were sent to each of the five ecological and water planning zones exist
within Bangladesh (e.g., the North-Central, North-East, North-West,
South-Central-West, and South-East zones). Information on the various
technologies was obtained from literature surveys, field visits,
questionnaire-based interviews, and focussed group discussions with agency
officials and project beneficiaries. Rainwater harvesting was identified as the
main, and perhaps only, freshwater augmentation technology being practised
regularly in Bangladesh.
4.2 Nepal
Field surveys in Nepal were carried out by D&M Associates, a
consulting company specialising in water, environment and sanitation issues in
Nepal. Information on the various technologies was obtained from literature
surveys, field visits, and interviews and discussions with agency officials and
project beneficiaries. Five technologies for freshwater augmentation were
identified as being in common use in Nepal; namely, the use of stone spouts and
pokharis, spring development and protection measures, rainwater
harvesting, bamboo-piped water supply systems, and hydraulic rams.
4.3 India
Field surveys in India were carried out by Prasad Modak and
Associates of Bombay, a consulting organisation specialising in water and
environmental issues. A literature survey, and interviews and discussions with
concerned personnel, were used to prepare sixteen case studies of various
freshwater augmentation technologies commonly used within India. The
technologies identified included the adoption of industrial water conservation
practices, use of reclaimed wastewater, recycling of process water, water
harvesting for drinking water supply, traditional soil and water conservation
practices, roof-top water harvesting, conjunctive use of surface and ground
waters for irrigation, use of evaporation retardants, artificial recharge of
groundwater, and use of water sprinkler and drip irrigation technologies.
4.4 Thailand
Field surveys in Thailand were conducted by the Water Experts
Group of the Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, and by Dr. Sacha Sethputra
of the Khon Khaen University. Technologies surveyed in Thailand includes
rainwater harvesting for agriculture and domestic use, particularly in the
northern and northeastern portions of Thailand, and desalination. A detailed
case study of the Thai Rainwater Jar, which has become popular in the Indo-China
region, was
prepared.