Case Studies of Neem Processing Projects Assisted by GTZ in Kenya, Dominican Republic, Thailand and Nicaragua (GTZ, 2000, 152 p.): 1. Introduction: 1.2 General introduction to neem products: 1.2.2 Efficacy of neem-based pesticides

Case Studies of Neem Processing Projects Assisted by GTZ in Kenya, Dominican Republic, Thailand and Nicaragua (GTZ, 2000, 152 p.)

(introduction...)

1. Introduction

1.1 Survey of the GTZ's neem activities

1.2 General introduction to neem products

(introduction...)

1.2.1 Need for neem products for pest management

1.2.2 Efficacy of neem-based pesticides

1.2.3 Comparison between home-made products and commercial products

2. Survey of neem-processing methods

(introduction...)

2.1 Home-made products

2.2 Commercial products

(introduction...)

2.2.1 Collection systems

2.2.2 Harvesting methods

2.2.3 Processing technology seeds

Extraction technologies

(introduction...)

A) Extraction with alcohol (also called one-step extraction)

B) Refined neem extracts - AZADIRACHTIN-ENRICHED EXTRACTS (also called two-step extraction plant)

C) Extraction using centrifuges

D) Extraction with Supracritical CO2

3. Investment costs of setting up a neem-processing plant

4. Case studies of small-scale semi-industrial neem processing in Kenya, Thailand, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua

Comparison of selected countries

4.1 Kenya

(introduction...)

4.1.1 Introduction, previous activities and other projects in Kenya in relation to neem

4.1.2 Situation found prior to the project for neem industrialisation

4.1.3 The beginning of small-scale commercial neem production

4.1.4 Economic assessment of the neem processing plant in Kenya

4.1.4.1 Technical and economic description of Saroneem Biopesticides Ltd

4.1.4.2 Production costs

4.1.5 Market potential, investment possibilities, marketing and development strategies

4.1.5.1 Marketing of neem products to date

4.1.5.2 Market potential

4.1.5.3 Analysis of Economic production with and without the use of neem pesticides

4.1.5.4 Market growth potential and substitution possibilities

4.1.6 ''Lessons learnt''

4.1.6.1 Project concept

4.1.6.2 Marketing and development strategies

4.1.7 Investment possibilities

4.1.8 Post-project experience

4.1.9 References

4.2 Documentation of neem activities in Thailand with special reference to the Thai Neem Products Company Ltd and the assistance provided to the DoA, Toxicological Division by CiM

(introduction...)

4.2.1 Introduction

4.2.2 Previous activities and other projects in relation to neem

4.2.3 Situation found concerning abundance of neem trees and of raw material supply

4.2.4 Small-scale commercial neem production

4.2.5 Economical assessment of Thai Neem Products Company Ltd

4.2.5.1 Selected key data of the plant

4.2.5.2 Production costs

4.2.5.3 Investment possibilities

4.2.6 Market potential, marketing and development strategies

4.2.6.1 The pesticide market in Thailand

4.2.6.2 Marketing of neem products to date

4.2.6.3 Market potential

4.2.6.4 Market promotion

4.2.6.5 Marketing channel and distribution

4.2.6.6 Analysis of economic production with and without the use of neem pesticides

4.2.7 ''Lessons learnt'' and recommendations

4.2.8 References

4.3. Small-scale industrial manufacturing of neem-based pesticides in the Dominican Republic

(introduction...)

4.3.1 Introduction

4.3.2 Previous activities and other projects related to neem

4.3.3 Small-scale commercial neem manufacturing in the Dominican Republic

4.3.4 Economic assessment of the neem-processing plant in the Dominican Republic

4.3.4.1 Technical and economic description of FAMA's neem-processing plant

4.3.4.2 Production costs of FAMA's neem-processing plant

4.3.5 Market potential for neem pesticides in the Dominican Republic

4.3.5.1 Marketing to date

4.3.5.2 Market potential of neem pesticides

4.3.5.3 Analysis of the economic production with and without the use of neem pesticides

4.3.5.4 Market growth potential and substitution possibilities

4.3.6 ''Lessons learnt'' - recommendations

4.4 Small-scale commercial neem production in Nicaragua

(introduction...)

4.4.1 Introduction

4.4.2 Previous activities and other projects in relation to neem

4.4.3 Small-scale commercial neem production in Nicaragua

4.4.3.1 Seed collection

4.4.3.2 Processing activities

4.4.4 Economical assessment of COPINIM's processing plant in Nicaragua

4.4.4.1 Technical and economic description of the neem processing plant

4.4.4.2 Production costs at COPINIM's neem processing plant

4.4.5 Market potential for neem pesticides in Nicaragua

4.4.5.1 Marketing of neem pesticides to date

4.4.5.2 Market potential

4.4.5.3 Further neem manufacturers in Nicaragua

4.4.5.4 Analysis of the economic production with and without the use of neem pesticides

4.4.5.5 Market growth potential and substitution possibilities in Nicaragua

4.4.6 ''Lessons learnt'', recommendations and development strategies

4.4.7 References

4.4.8 Units

5. Summary and Outlook

1.2.2 Efficacy of neem-based pesticides

Comprehensive research on the effects of neem has been carried out around the world, mainly in India, Germany and the US, and in many other countries, often assisted by GTZ projects.

There is no doubt any more that neem extracts and products are effective in controlling a wide range of pests (Schmutterer 1995).

According to Schmutterer (1995, 1998) the neem-based extracts display an array of effects on insects, such as:

· antifeedancy
· reduction/prevention of settling and oviposition
· disturbance of metamorphosis
· sterilisation
· reduction of activity (fitness)
· effects on cell level (molecular level)

Despite the fact that neem is effective against a wide range of pests, it is much more selective than standard broad-spectrum pesticides in the pests and beneficial organisms it effects. Therefore it must be quite clear which pest is to be controlled in which crop, and sometimes even at which stage of the crop. Otherwise the application of neem will fail and the farmers will disappointedly turn away from this environmentally sound alternative.

One reason for some disappointment lies in the fact that "neem" does not always mean the same thing. To date more than 145 active ingredients have been identified (Morgan 1999), of which 40 are assumed or proven to have insecticidal properties.

· Azadirachtin (C₃₅H₄₄O₁₆), the most active insecticidal substance in neem seed, disrupts growth, prevents moulting, causes sterility of eggs, and other effects.
· Nimbin is a feeding repellent.
· Salannin inhibits feeding.

It is not known exactly which synergistic or additional effects the other ingredients or metabolites have. Even if pesticides are standardised, the quality parameter refers to the azadirachtin content only, despite the fact that the other active ingredients (Als) are as important or even more important against many pests. Therefore the need to select further Als for quality parameters is occasionally discussed (Foerster 1998). This, on the other hand, would increase the costs of quality control considerably.

The potential of the neem tree as a source of natural pesticides has been exploited in the production of neem-based pesticides in several countries, often at cottage or small-scale level.

The following table (Table 4) lists possible neem products for agricultural usage:

Table 4: Overview of various neem products and target pests:

Product	Remarks	Application areas
Alcoholic extracts	Mostly ethanol, methanol, based on cake or kernels	Leaf chewing insects such as Lepidoptera
Raw, formulated or enriched neem oil	Cold pressed, problem: aflatoxin contamination	Sucking insects such as whitefly, aphids Refined oil as fungicide
Neem cake	Quality depends i.a. on pressing method (temperature); Ground and mixed with shells or directly applied	Nematodes, systemic effects if applied in nurseries and to young or green (not woody) plants, As powder or extracts against biting pests De-nitrogenic bacteria suppressed
Remains (cake of alcoholic extraction)	Fertiliser	Effect not properly investigated
Azadirachtin-enriched extracts	Require additional extraction (two-step extraction) which produce azadirachtin powder	Same pests as above but more stable
Neem powder	Made of high quality dry neem kernels, sold in sealed vacuum-tight, polyethylene bags ("tea bags"), etc.	Wide spectrum of pests